Phylogenetic dependency networks: Inferring patterns of adaptation in hiv
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Y Y Y Y H H H H H Σ X 2 X 1 I 1 I 2 L Σ I 1 I 2 Σ I 1 I 2 Σ I 1 I 2 Σ I 1 I 2 X 2 X 1 L X 1 X 1 X 1 Figure 8.2: Noisy Add model with unlinked (X 1 ) and linked (X 2 ) predictors. The model takes the same form as in Figure 4.5 , except that the linked predictor variables (e.g. HLA traits) have an extra hidden node. As in the univariate case ( Figure 8.1 ), given X 2 = 1, L = 1 with probability s 1 . Given L 1 = 1, the intermediate nodes I 2 are 1 with probability s 2 . 137 GLOSSARY ADAPTATION: A particular mutation that gives rise to an increase in fitness in a given environment and thus has become (or will become) prevalent in the population. ALLELE: One particular gene variation. AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ARV: Antiretroviral Therapy. ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY: Therapy involving any of a number of drugs de- signed to thwart HIV infection. Major classes of antiretrovirals include drugs that prevent the proper function of HIV Protease, Reverse Transcriptase and Integrase, as well as drugs that interfere with HIV’s ability to fuse with certain CD4 + T-cells. ATTRACTION: In the context of a conditional adaptation model, attraction de- scribes the process whereby the presence of the predictor trait leads to mutation toward from the amino acid described by the target trait. When an HLA allele is the predictor trait, attraction is typically toward a specific resistant mutation. BAYESIAN INFORMATION CRITERION: An asymptotic approximation to the marginal log likelihood of a model, a Bayesian measure of how well the model represents the data. BIC: Bayesian Information Criterion. 138 BULK SEQUENCING: Broadly, any sequencing method that results in a single con- sensus sequence for each individual. CALIBRATION CURVE: A curve plotting (1 − Precision) against q-value. CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE: Broadly, the part of the adaptive immune re- sponse that is mediated by T-cells. Here, we focus on the targeting of infected cells for destruction through HLA-1-presented epitopes. CD4 + T-LYMPHOCYTES: Also known as helper T cells or effector T cells, these cells are involved in coordinating the immune response. Importantly, these are the cells preferentially targeted by HIV. CD8 + T-LYMPHOCYTES: A class of T-cells, including CTL, that express CD8. These cells are typically involved in the direct or indirect killing of infected cells. CLADE: HIV-1 group M (the predominant group) is divided into nine distinct subtypes, or clades. These clades can be easily identified by building a phylogeny from a large sample of group M sequences. Each major cluster in the tree is a clade. In this work, we consider sequences from clade B (the predominant clade in North American infections) and clade C (the predominant clade in South African infections) CODON: Although codon is more precisely defined to be the sequence of three RNA bases that encode an amino acid, here we will often use the term to refer to a position in the protein. For example, codon 3 is the 3rd position. CODON-CODON ASSOCIATION: An association between two HIV codons. Through- out this work, codon-codon association will typically refer to the strongest as- sociation between a any amino acid at either of the two codons. 139 COEVOLUTION: Broadly, any process by which two or more traits have evolved together along the same phylogeny, each trait mutually influencing the other. COMPARATIVE METHOD: Broadly, an approach that seeks to identify the adap- tive function of a trait by comparing the presence of that trait in different populations or species. COMPENSATORY MUTATION: Mutation A is compensatory with respect to muta- tion B if mutation B induces a fitness cost that is relieved by mutation A. CONDITIONAL ADAPTATION MODEL: A probabilistic model we propose for the PDN. In this model, the target trait is assumed to have evolved independently throughout evolutionary time until it reaches the environment in which we are able to observe it. In this environment, a model of selection pressure in con- structed and the target trait is allowed to adapt to this selection pressure. CTL: Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte. CYTOTOXIC T-LYMPHOCYTE: Cells that recognize HLA-I-presented epitopes and cause the death of infected cells. DAG: Directed Acyclic Graphical model. DECISION TREE MODEL: A multivariate conditional adaptation model in which the selection pressure derived from a set of predictor traits is computed using a Decision Tree, which is a compact way of describing the unique selection pressure that arises from every possible configuration of predictor traits. See page 39 for details. DEPENDENCY NETWORK: A probabilistic graphical model. The structure of the model consists of nodes and directed arcs, such that the arc A → B denotes 140 that B is statistically dependent on A. The probability component of the model is a set of local conditional probabilities, one for each node, that describes the probability distribution for each node conditioned on all other nodes that point to it in the graph. DIRECTED ACYCLIC GRAPHICAL MODEL: A graphical model similar to the DN, except that directed cycles are not allowed and the goal of the model is to maximize the joint likelihood over all the nodes in the graph. DIRECT ASSOCIATION: If the inferred dependency network includes the chain A → B → C, then A → B and B → C are direct associations. In some contexts, direct association refers to directly interacting traits in the true causal chain. DISCRIMINATION CURVE: See Precision-Recall curve. DN: Dependency Network. ELISPOT ASSAY: see interferon-γ ELISpot assay. EPITOPE: Broadly, the part of a molecule that is the target of an immune response. In the case of antibodies, an epitope is a region of exposed viral protein. In the case of the cellular immune response, and epitope is a linear fragment of HIV protein that is presented by HLA class I or class II molecules. ESCAPE: See immune escape for a general definition. In the context of a condi- tional adaptation model, escape describes the process whereby the presence of the predictor trait leads to mutation away from the amino acid described by the target trait. FDR: False Discovery Rate. 141 FALSE DISCOVERY RATE: The expected proportion of tests called significant that are truly null. FET: Fisher’s exact test. FISHER’S EXACT TEST: A standard test of independence between two binary traits. Assume each trait is IID. FITNESS: Roughly, the reproductive capacity of a specific virion. Virions that are more fit will reproduce more rapidly; thus, their genetic material will come ot dominate the population. Fitness can be estimated in vitro using, for example, viral replication or competition assays. Selection pressure changes which virions are more fit than others, and the specific mutations that increase fitness are called adaptations. FIXATION: An mutation is said to be fixed in a population when the vast majority of individuals have the mutation. FOLLOW THE TREE: A trait is said to follow the tree or phylogeny if that phy- logeny (approximately) describes the evolutionary history of that trait. GAG: An HIV polyprotein involved with the structure of the virion. Upon mat- uration, the Gag protein is cleaved into several smaller proteins, including p17 (Capsid) and p24 (Matrix), which we look at in chapter 7 . CTL response against Gag have been weakly correlated with control of viremia [ 116 ]. GWAS: Genome Wide Association Study. GENOME WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDY: An approach to identifying genetic varia- tions that cause specific phenotypes by comparing a large set of SNPs to phe- notypes in a large number of individuals. 142 HLA: Human Leukocyte Antigen. HLA-CODON ASSOCIATION: An association between an HLA allele and an HIV codon. Throughout this work, HLA-codon association will typically refer to the strongest association between a given HLA allele and any amino acid at that codon. HLA-I: HLA class I. HUMAN LEUKOCYTE ANTIGEN: The human major histocompatibility complex pro- teins. There are two classes, I and II. In this work, we focus on class I, which are primarily responsible for presenting viral epitopes on the surface of infected cells. Among class I, there are three loci: A, B and C. Thus, each individual has six HLA genes (three from each parent). HIV: In this document, shorthand for HIV-1. HIV-1: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1. The lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes AIDS. IID: Independent and identically distributed. IMMUNE ESCAPE: An immune escape mutation is an adaptation that reduces the ability of an individual’s immune system to target HIV. IMMUNODOMINANCE: An epitope is immunodominant if it elicits a strong CTL response. It is subdominant if it elicits a weak response. The immunodominance hierarchy can refer either to the relative strength of epitope targeting at a given time point, or can refer to the progression of which epitopes are immunodom- inant throughout the course of infection. Patterns of immunodominance are 143 largely consistent in similar patients, though there appears to be a considerable amount of randomness as well. IMMUNODOMINATION: The (incompletely understood) process by why the CTL response actively keeps some epitopes subdominant while others are maintained as dominant. INDEPENDENT AND IDENTICALLY DISTRIBUTED: A collection of random variables is independent and identically distributed if each random variable has the same probability distribution and all random variables are statistically independent of the others. INDIRECT ASSOCIATION: If the inferred dependency network includes the chain A → B → C, then A → C is an indirect association. In some contexts, indirect association refers to indirectly interacting traits in the true causal chain. INTERFERON-γ ELISPOT ASSAY: Measures the number of cells secreting interferon- γ in under certain conditions. In this work, ELISpot specifically refers to tests designed determine whether a patient’s immune system can target an epitope. This is done by incubating patient-derived cells with the epitope, then test- ing for the secretion of interferon-γ, which indicates the active targeting of the epitope by CTL. LD: Linkage Disequilibrium. LEAF DISTRIBUTION: The specific probability distribution of a conditional adap- tation model that describes the probability of a given adaptation in response to selection pressure. LINKAGE DISEQUILIBRIUM: Two genetic traits are in linkage disequilibrium if they tend to be inherited together, such that two random variables represented the 144 two traits cannot be considered independent. In this work, the linkage disequi- librium among HLA alleles is considered. LIKELIHOOD: The probability of the data given a specific model. LIKELIHOOD RATIO TEST: A method for comparing two models, by which the maximum likelihood of model A is divided by the maximum likelihood of model B. If B is a special case of A (typically, B represents a null model that is a simplified version of A), then the ratio of the likelihoods is χ 2 distributed, allowing us to compute a p-value analytically. LRT: Likelihood Ratio Test. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD: The maximum likelihood over all possibly parameteriza- tions of a model. MULTIVARIATE CONDITIONAL ADAPTATION MODEL: Generally, a conditional adap- tation model in which there are more than one predictor variables. MUTATION: Typically refers to a spontaneous change in genomic DNA (RNA in the case of HIV). In this document, mutation is often used as a synonym for an amino acid substitution, as we are primarily interested in mutations that lead to amino acid substitutions. NEGATIVE SELECTION: The process by which deleterious mutations are removed from the population due to their negative impact on fitness. In the context of Noisy Add, negative selection refers to pressure to move away from the amino acid (assuming by analogy that the amino acid is deleterious). NEUTRAL EVOLUTION: If in a given position no mutation is favored by selection pressure, then neutral evolution describes the process whereby the frequency of 145 each mutation in the population follows a random walk. NOISY ADD MODEL: A multivariate conditional adaptation model in which selec- tion pressure is modeled as a stochastic, additive process from a set of predictor traits, each of which my contribute positive or negative selection pressure on the target trait. NONSYNONYMOUS MUTATION: A mutation in DNA/RNA that leads to an amino acid change. PDN: Phylogenetic Dependency Network. PFDR: Positive False Discovery Rate. PHENOTYPE: Any non-genetic, observable trait. PHYLOGENETIC DEPENDENCY NETWORK: A dependency network in which the local conditional probability component for each node is conditioned on the phylogeny using a model of evolution. PHYLOGENY: A tree structure that defines the ancestor-descendent relationships of a group of species or populations. PLASMA VIRAL LOAD: The quantity of virus per milliliter of plasma. POL: The HIV polyprotein that is cleaved into Protease, Reverse Transcriptase, and Integrase. POLYMORPHISM: A specific genetic variation at a specific site. We refer to poly- morphisms both at the DNA/RNA level and at the protein level. 146 POSITIVE FALSE DISCOVERY RATE: The FDR conditioned on the rejection of at least one test. POSITIVE SELECTION: The process by which an adaptation moves to fixation in the population. In the context of Noisy Add, positive selection refers to selective pressure that favors the amino acid. PR CURVE: Precision-Recall curve. PRECISION: The proportion of tests called significant that are true alternative tests (i.e., associations that are in fact “real”). PRECISION-RECALL CURVE: A curve that plots precision against recall for a group of methods. The curve for a given method is constructed by ordering all of the predictions of that method by q-value. The precision and recall are calculated for each q-value threshold and the resulting curve is plotted. PREDICTOR TRAIT: In the context of a PDN, the predictor trait is any node on which a target trait is conditioned. PURIFYING SELECTION: A synonym for negative selection. P -VALUE: A measure of statistical significance. Roughly, the probability of seem- ing something at least this significant under the null hypothesis. PVL: Plasma Viral Load. Q-VALUE: The FDR analogue of the p-value. The q-value of a test is the minimum FDR for any significance threshold that would cause this test to be rejected. QUASISPECIES: The distinct population of HIV virions infecting a single patient. Due to the rapid rate of mutation and adaptation in HIV, the HIV population 147 infecting each patient is typically quite different from that infecting any other patient. RECALL: The proportion of true alternative tests (i.e., associations that are “real”) that are called significant. REPULSION: In the context of a conditional adaptation model, repulsion describes the process whereby the absence of the predictor trait leads to mutation away from the amino acid described by the target trait. RESISTANT FORM: In the context of HLA-codon associations, the resistant form is that correlated with the presence of the HLA, and thus presumed to provide relative resistance against HLA-mediated epitope targeting. REVERSION: Reversion occurs when a codon mutates back to the susceptible fol- lowing the removal of the selection pressure. It is, in effect, an adaptation that undoes a previous adaptation, and typically occurs when the escape adaptation incurs a fitness cost on the virus. In this case, when the virus is transmitted to an HLA-mismatched recipient, the selection pressure favoring the adaptation is removed, and the adaptation is actively selected against due to the fitness cost. In the context of a conditional adaptation model, reversion describes the process whereby the absence of the predictor trait leads to mutation toward the amino acid described by the target trait. SELECTION PRESSURE: Any environmental trait that reduces the fitness of some mutations and favors the fitness of other mutations is said to exert selection pressure. SGS: Single Genome Sequencing. 148 SINGLE GENOME SEQUENCING: Broadly, any method by which single virion se- quences are obtained. SIV: Simian Immunodeficiency Virus. An HIV-like virus that infects some species of monkeys. HIV is believed to have arisen from SIV around the turn of the 20th century [ 229 ]. SNP: Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM: A genetic variation or mutation that oc- curs at a single position. SUSCEPTIBLE FORM: In the context of HLA-codon associations, the susceptible form is that correlated with the absence of the HLA, and thus presumed to be susceptible to HLA-mediated epitope targeting. SYNONYMOUS MUTATION: A mutation in DNA/RNA that does not lead to an amino acid change. TARGET TRAIT: In the context of a PDN, the target trait refers to the node for which we are currently defining the local conditional probability distribution. TRAIT: A certain characteristic of an individual, population or environment. In this work, typical traits include whether or not a patient has a given HLA allele, and the specific amino acid observed at a specific position in an HIV protein. UNIVARIATE CONDITIONAL ADAPTATION MODEL: A specific conditional adapta- tion model in which there is only one predictor trait. VARIABLE: In the context of a PDN, a variable is shorthand for a random variable that represents a given trait for a given individual. For example, Y i is a random variable for trait Y in individual i. 149 VIRAL LOAD: See plasma viral load. VIREMIA: The presence of virus in the bloodstream. VIRION: An individual virus particle. 150 BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Addo MM, Yu XG, Rathod A, Cohen D, Eldridge RL, Strick D, Johnston MN, Corcoran C, Wurcel AG, Fitzpatrick CA, Feeney ME, Rodriguez WR, Basgoz N, Draenert R, Stone DR, Brander C, Goulder PJR, Rosenberg ES, Altfeld M and Walker BD (2003). Comprehensive epitope analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-specific T-cell responses directed against the entire expressed HIV-1 genome demonstrate broadly directed responses, but no correlation to viral load. Journal of Virology 77(3):2081–2092. 198 [2] Allen TM, Altfeld M, Geer SC, Kalife ET, Moore C, O’Sullivan KM, DeSouza I, Feeney ME, Eldridge RL, Maier EL, Kaufmann DE, Lahaie MP, Reyor L, Tanzi G, Johnston MN, Brander C, Draenert R, Rockstroh JK, Jessen H, Rosenberg ES, Mallal SA and Walker BD (2005). Selective escape from CD8 + T-cell responses represents a major driving force of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) sequence diversity and reveals constraints on HIV-1 evolution. Journal of Virology 79(21):13239–13249. 21 , 113 [3] Allen TM, Altfeld M, Yu XG, O’Sullivan KM, Lichterfeld M, Le Gall S, John M, Mothe BR, Lee PK, Kalife ET, Cohen DE, Freedberg KA, Strick DA, Johnston MN, Sette A, Rosenberg ES, Mallal SA, Goulder PJR, Brander C and Walker BD (2004). Selection, transmission, and reversion of an antigen-processing cy- totoxic T-lymphocyte escape mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Journal of Virology 78(13):7069–7078. 20 [4] Allen TM, Yu XG, Kalife ET, Reyor LL, Lichterfeld M, John M, Cheng M, Allgaier RL, Mui S, Frahm N, Alter G, Brown NV, Johnston MN, Rosenberg ES, 151 Mallal SA, Brander C, Walker BD and Altfeld M (2005). De novo generation of escape variant-specific CD8 + T-cell responses following cytotoxic T-lymphocyte escape in chronic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Journal of Virology 79(20):12952–12960. 27 [5] ALTFELD M, ADDO MM, ROSENBERG ES, HECHT FM, LEE PK, VO- GEL M, G. YX, DRAENERT R, JOHNSTON MN, STRICK D, ALLEN TM, FEENEY ME, KAHN JO, SEKALY RP, LEVY JA, ROCKSTROH JK, GOUL- DER PJR and WALKER BD (2003). Influence of HLA-B57 on clinical presen- tation and viral control during acute HIV-1 infection. AIDS 17(18):2581–2591. 105 , 109 [6] Altfeld M and Allen TM (2006). Hitting HIV where it hurts: an alternative approach to HIV vaccine design. Trends in Immunology 27(11):504–510. 104 [7] Altfeld M, Kalife ET, Qi Y, Streeck H, Lichterfeld M, Johnston MN, Burgett N, Swartz ME, Yang A, Alter G, Yu XG, Meier A, Rockstroh JK, Allen TM, Download 4.8 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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