Political Changes between 1815 and 1914

Political Changes between 1815 and 1914

• Political Changes between 1815 and 1914

• Prussia & other states = Germany

• Italy is united

• New nations in the Ottoman Empire

• Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria (BALKAN PENINSULA)

• New nations: Belgium, Norway

Imperialism

• Imperialism

• Definition: policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, economically, and/or socially
• European countries competed for colonies in Africa and Asia
• Dominated by Great Britain and France (Italy and Germany were late to take colonies)
• Compete for influence in the Balkans

All the great powers were competing for colonies / territory.

• All the great powers were competing for colonies / territory.

• The British feared Germany in Africa.

• The Austrians feared Serbia / Russia in the Balkans

Deep Devotion to One’s Nation

• Deep Devotion to One’s Nation
• Competition and Rivalry developed between European nations for territory and markets
• (Example France and Germany- Alsace-Lorraine)

Austria-Hungary lost a war to France in 1848

• Austria-Hungary lost a war to France in 1848

• Austria-Hungary lost a war to Prussia in 1866

• Germany defeats France in the Franco-Prussian War(1870-1871)

• -Germany receives Alsace-Lorraine from France

• United States defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War(1898)

• Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05)

• France and Germany almost go to war over Morocco(1905& 1911)

• The Pig War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia - a economic war not military

• Italy defeats Turkey in the Tripolitanian War(1911)

• The Balkan League(Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria & Greece) defeated the Ottoman Empire(Turkey) in the First Balkan War(1912)

• Serbia and Greece defeat Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War(1913)

Germany was competing with the UK to build battleships.

• Germany was competing with the UK to build battleships.

• The British feared an attack on their Empire

Germany was competing with Russia and France to expand their armies

• Germany was competing with Russia and France to expand their armies

• 1880 1914

• Germany 1.3m 5.0m

• France 0.73m 4.0m

• Russia 0.40m 1.2m

By 1914 all the major powers were linked by a system of alliances.

• By 1914 all the major powers were linked by a system of alliances.

• The alliances made it more likely that a war would start.

• Once started, the alliances made it more likely to spread.

Ottoman Empire declining

• Ottoman Empire declining

• Nationalism = powerful force in the Balkans

• Austria-Hungary takes over struggling nations and vows to crush any efforts to undermine authority

• Serbia – supported by Russia; wants to break free from Austria-Hungary

Kaiser Wilhelm II

• Kaiser Wilhelm II

• Built up German army and navy

• Aggressive foreign policy

• Determined to make Germany a top nation.

• Distrusted by other powers

Count Berchtold

• Count Berchtold

• Austrian Prime Minister.

• During the July Crisis, decided on a very tough ultimatum for Serbia

Bethmann Hollweg

• Bethmann Hollweg

• German Prime Minister

• Gave very strong support to Austria during the July crisis while Kaiser was cruising on his yacht

28 June 1914

• 28 June 1914

• Heir to Austrian throne Franz Ferdinand visits Sarajevo.

• Capital of Bosnia, recently grabbed by Austria.

• Hotbed of Slav nationalism

“Black Hand” terrorists attack the Arch Duke

• “Black Hand” terrorists attack the Arch Duke

• Bomb attempt fails in morning

• Gavrilo Princip shoots Archduke and wife in the afternoon.

• Austrians blame Serbia for supporting terrorists.

Austrians, supported by Germany, send Serbia a tough ultimatum.

• Austrians, supported by Germany, send Serbia a tough ultimatum.

• Serbia agrees to all but two terms of the ultimatum.

• Russia mobilises her troops to support Serbia

• Germany demands that Russia stands her armies down.

• Germany declares war on Russia

Britain had Ententes with France and Russia.

• Britain had Ententes with France and Russia.

• Only “friendly agreements” but French and Russians given impression Britain would fight.

• The Schlieffen Plan

Germany’s military plan to defeat France and Russia.

• Germany’s military plan to defeat France and Russia.

• “Knock out blow” aimed at France first.

• Avoid French defences by invasion of Belgium.

• Germans thought Britain would not intervene.

1838- UK had signed a Treaty to protect Belgium.

• 1838- UK had signed a Treaty to protect Belgium.

• Britain also scared of Germany controlling Channel ports.

• Did not want Germany to defeat France and dominate Europe. Britain next?

• UK issued ultimatum to Germany to withdraw troops from Belgium. War declared August 4 1914

Questions to ask:

• Questions to ask:

• If war seemed “inconceivable” why did it happen?

• How was this a “world war”?

• The Textbook list of Primary Causes:

• Imperialism (colonialism), Nationalism, Militarism and Alliances.

• “A Place in the Sun”

• “Splendid Isolation”

• Naval Race

Confusing Array of Alliances

• Confusing Array of Alliances

• Distrust: Boer War, Russo-Japanese War, Africa, Chinese concessions, colonial disputes

• Moroccan Crisis (1905 & 1911)

• Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)

• Trouble in the Balkans (1912-1913)

Setting the Stage

• Setting the Stage

• I. Crisis in the Balkans

• II. The Spark

• Black Hand & Assassination (6/28/1914)

• Franz Ferdinand

The Spark (continued)

• The Spark (continued)

• Inquiry: How could an assassination set off a world war?

• B. German “Blank Check”

• C. Russian Mobilization

• D. “Saber Rattling”

The Players:

• The Players:

• Central Powers = Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire

• Allied Powers = Great Britain & Commonwealth, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Japan, Italy (1915), USA (1917)

III. The Armed Stalemate

• III. The Armed Stalemate

• Peter Browning & The Changing Nature of Warfare. Shift from Political Warfare to Position Warfare.

• A. The Schlieffen Plan and its significance. 8/3/1914: Belgium’s neutrality is violated

• B. The War on Land and the Western Front

• War in the Trenches, Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme.

B. The War at Sea

• B. The War at Sea

• Naval blockade, Submarine warfare, the Lusitania

• C. Diplomatic Maneuvers

• Italy, Zimmermann Telegraph, Asia, German Expansionism

• D. Russia & Eastern Front

• Russian Revolution, Provisional Government, The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• E. U.S. Enters the War

• W. Wilson: “Peace without victory.” and

• “To make the world safe for democracy” (?)

• F. The World at War: Africa & Asia

• G. Germany’s decline

• H. Armistice

• Did the Central Powers surrender?

Schlieffen Plan: Was the Schlieffen Plan of the German General Staff a sound war strategy?

• Schlieffen Plan: Was the Schlieffen Plan of the German General Staff a sound war strategy?

• Yes. The various directives that made up the German war plan indicate a high level of flexibility and a willingness to respond to events. (Robert T. Foley)

• No. The Schlieffen Plan was predicated on an inexorable progression to an all-or-nothing victory. (Antulio Echevarria)

• No. The Schlieffen Plan seriously underestimated the capabilities of enemy forces and did not take into account their tenacity and rapid deployment. (John Wheatley)

• Belgian Neutrality: Was the violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914 the reason for Great Britain’s declaration of war on Germany?

• Yes. The international treaty of 1839 had formally acknowledged that Belgian neutrality was an important element in European stability and British strategic interests. (Paul Du Quenoy)

• No. The British had already determined to declare war once Germany had mobilized its military forces. (John Wheatley)

The Fisher Thesis

• The Fisher Thesis

• German documents prove expansionist aims. War used to contain domestic unrest.

• Barbara Tuchman: The Guns of August (1962)

• Historical narrative of August, 1914

• G. Lowes Dickinson: International Anarchy (1926)

• Alliance system blamed for the war

• Sidney Fey: The Origins of the World War (1928)

• Blames Russia & A-H

• Vladimir Lenin

• Inevitable outcome of capitalism is war

• Nye Committee (1934-6) for U.S. involvement

Five Treaties:

• Five Treaties:

• Austria = Treaty of St. Germaine

• Hungary = Treaty of Trianon

• Bulgaria = Treaty of Neuilly

• Turkey = Treaty of Sevres

• Germany = Treaty of Versailles

• Big Four

• France (Clemenceau), G.B. (George), U.S. (Wilson), Italy (Orlando).

• 32 countries total with only 8 meetings

• Germany & Russia not invited!

Wilson’s Fourteen Points

• Wilson’s Fourteen Points

• Germany’s armistice hinged on the provisions of the Fourteen Points. New democratic Germany hoped to be treated as an equal.

• End to secret treaties and secret diplomacy; freedom of the seas; removal of barriers in international trade; evacuation of occupied territories; self-determination of nationalities; redraw the map of Europe; League of Nations.

Wilson hoped to revive the idealism of 19th century Europe with American Democracy = a new era

• Wilson hoped to revive the idealism of 19th century Europe with American Democracy = a new era

• Controversy: France demanded reparations, UK vetoed “freedom of the seas”. League of Nations covenant debated: U.S. & religious freedom, Japan & racial discrimination.

• U.S. senate never ratifies the League due to Article 10 (protection of territorial independence of all members). Senate = Republican Party, election year (1920)

France:

• France:

• Number one concern = security from Germany aggression

• Revenge for Franco-Prussian War?

• Anglo-French-American Guarantee Treaty (protection against Germany).

• Alsace-Lorraine returned to France (lost in F-P War).

• German military banned from Rhineland + Allied occupation. France controls Saar coal mines in Rhineland for 15 years.

4. Disarm Germany. How and in what way?

• 4. Disarm Germany. How and in what way?

• 5. War Reparations. Due in part to emotions, reparations paid to Germany for F-P War, and debt owed to U.S.

• Great Britain: wanted a peaceful united Germany to stop Bolshevism and to become a strong market for British goods.

• Treaty was a compromise between the two nations

Germany and Disarmament

• Germany and Disarmament

• Rhineland demilitarized

• Military demobilized. No air force allowed.

• Limited to 7 divisions of infantry, 3 of cavalry: total can’t exceed 100,000 men & 4,000 officers

4. No Navy. Germans scuttled fleet at Scapa Flow. No submarines allowed. Merchant Marine allowed providing it does not compete with allied interests.

• 4. No Navy. Germans scuttled fleet at Scapa Flow. No submarines allowed. Merchant Marine allowed providing it does not compete with allied interests.

• 5. Germany assumes “War Guilt Clause”

• 6. “Diktat” = Germany not consulted on matter

• Was this done in the spirit of idealism to end armed conflict?

• How would Germany defend itself from any aggression?

The Map of Europe

• The Map of Europe

• Danzig Corridor – created a passage to the sea for Poland. Danzig a free city, mainly German in ethnicity. East Prussia separated from Germany.

• Russia loses Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Each become “new” nations. Cordon Sanitaire created to contain Bolshevism.

• Austria-Hungary carved up. Creation of Yugoslavia & Czechoslovakia. Empire in decline, separated from Germany.

• Italy makes small gains from Treaty of London.

The World Map

• The World Map

• Germany lost all colonies. The League gave mandates to powers for administration.

• African Colonies: mainly to France, GB. Belgian Congo enlarged, S. Africa gains land.

• Japan gained German Pacific Islands, concessions in China.

• Australia & New Zealand gain Pacific islands.

• China sought to abolish special concessions and extraterritorial rights of Europeans. They lost, walked out of the conference.

• Italy gains nothing from colonies.

• New nation of Turkey emerges from Ottoman Empire. Land restricted, area carved up into new nations 1920 & 1923.

Colonies and territories not yet able to “stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world” are governed by (mainly) GB and France

• Colonies and territories not yet able to “stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world” are governed by (mainly) GB and France

• Middle East, Pacific, Africa

• Considered paternalistic and condescending

• Nations had to submit yearly reports to the League. Unrest meant a League committee.

• Self-determination was established for a future date of independence.

Germany refused to sign. Threat of hostilities to commence by allies. Germany signs with a delegation of two people. Germany humiliated.

• Germany refused to sign. Threat of hostilities to commence by allies. Germany signs with a delegation of two people. Germany humiliated.

• New nations affirmed by “self-determination”. Actually, they declared themselves before Paris. Trouble with minority groups caught in borders.

• Many of the terms were too harsh or too lenient. They were later amended after emotions and rationality returned.

United States gets out of European affairs. Isolation.

• United States gets out of European affairs. Isolation.

• “Ancient institutions of monarchy and aristocratic feudalism” are gone (Palmer-Colton, 731)

• League of Nations emerges as new step toward democracy.

• Great Britain and France emerge as the status quo.

• Margaret McMillian (Peace of Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World): The peacemakers worked with the best solutions given the time. Enforcement was left for a new generation (who failed).

Treaty of St. Germaine: Austria made into a small state of 8 million. New states made: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. No alliances allowed with Germany.

• Treaty of St. Germaine: Austria made into a small state of 8 million. New states made: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. No alliances allowed with Germany.

• Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 2/3 of land to Czechoslovakia, Romania & Yugoslavia.

• Treaty of Nevilly: Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Serbia.

• Treaty of Sevres: The harshest treaty; Turkey loses to the MANDATES; ethnic groups pulled out; GB and France control the Middle East.

‘The Versailles Treaty was criticized by both winners and losers.’ How justified was this criticism?

• ‘The Versailles Treaty was criticized by both winners and losers.’ How justified was this criticism?

• How would you evaluate the success of the Paris Peace treaties in resolving armed conflict as a means to settle disputes and in restoring peace and normality?

• What problems do you believe will emerge in Europe from the outcomes of the Paris Peace Treaties for both the victorious and defeated nations?

• How far do you agree with the view that Versailles was a brave attempt to deal with difficult, perhaps impossible problems?

Acceleration of Government Intervention

• Acceleration of Government Intervention

• Nationalism & Propaganda bound together

• Economic Control (due to war mobilization) Laissez Faire Capitalism changes

• U.S. and Japan begin to control world trade

• New political structures = Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia (ethnic enclaves), Soviet Union (economic coalition)

Disruption of Rationality & Liberalism

• Disruption of Rationality & Liberalism

• Enter the “Age of Uncertainty”:

• Sciences = Quantum Physics

• Art & Music = Cubism, Surrealism, Expressionism, Dadaism

• Human Cost

• “The Lost Generation”

Economic

• Economic

• America assumes banking role

• Inflation ravages Germany; Middle Class declines

• Popular speculation in markets

• Societal Norms

• Women’s Suffrage Movement

• Backlash: Church, family, children

• U.S.: Temperance & Prohibition

• New Mass Culture

• Film, Radio, Newspapers

• Advertisement Industry

• Leisure Time

The Short War Illusion

• The Short War Illusion

• Main reason for intellectual acceptance of the the war. Minority against war labeled as “pacifists”

• Meliorist Myth

• Nations can no longer remain neutral

• Irrational Thought

• Freud and Nietzsche gain acceptance unlike pre-war era.

• Versus Habit

• Polarization of conflict increases:

• “Us against Them”

Humanism & Positivism Destroyed

• Humanism & Positivism Destroyed

• War challenged the belief of progress to ambiguity & uncertainty

• Literary examples:

• Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (1918-22)

• Franz Kafka, The Trial (1925)

• Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1932)

• Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents

Moods of the time: angst & cultural despair

• Moods of the time: angst & cultural despair

• End of the Modern Period? Beginning of the Postmodern Period?