Principles for designing materials

2.2. Learning material development process


Although the expression “materials development” (Tomlinson, 1998) has different denominations in available literature, such as instructional materials design, course development, course books , instructional design strategies, we prefer the term materials development since it offers a more inclusive definition.⁸ It embraces an array of behaviours leading to fostering effective teaching and learning settings. Moreover, it includes the adaptation and/or creation of a learning- teaching exercise, a task, an activity, a lesson, a unit, or a module composed by one or two units. Materials development implies the combination of both reasoning and artistic processes. In this respect, Low states that “designing appropriate materials is not a science: it is a strange mixture of imagination, insight, and analytical reasoning” In the same thread of thought, Maley asserts⁹ that the writer should trust “…intuition and tacit knowledge” ….“and operate with a set of variables that are raised to a conscious level only when he [she] encounters a problem and so works in a more analytical way” Then, these authors agree on the fact that materials development entails a rational process and artistic inspiration that together perform a central role in attaining appealing teaching-learning resources. Considering that our duty as teachers is to care for our students’ learning, developing appropriate tailor-made materials that suit all of our learners’ profiles becomes a fundamental must. According to UNESCO (2004), “... to respond to the diversity of learners and enhance the quality of education we should improve the effectiveness of teachers, promote learning-centred methodologies, develop appropriate textbooks and learning materials, and ensure that schools are safe and healthy for all children”. Finally, Tomlinson’s (1998) definition of materials development suits our perception of inclusiveness as it is “anything which is done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and to exploit those sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake” (p. 2).In developing language learning materials, in addition to referring to the principles chosen, language learning materials developers have to follow logical steps or procedure to produce useful and logical language learning materials. The general procedure of development includes design/development, implementation, and evaluation. Dick and Carey (1990)¹⁰ suggest ten components of the systems approach model, that is, identify an instructional goal, conduct an instructional analysis, identify entry behaviors and characteristics, write performance objectives, develop criterion-referenced test items, develop an instructional strategy, develop and/or select instructional materials, design and conduct the formative evaluation, revise instruction, and conduct summative evaluation. This English language learning materials implementation is used as a formative evaluation of the materials being developed. If it turns out that in the implementation of the materials
The materials users find it inaccurate, the developer can revise for better product.


Materials Development Demands


Acknowledging that students learn at particular speeds and succeed in different manners, teachers should consider this diversity when teaching the target language and when developing their materials trying, at the same time, to keep a balance among students’ language learning needs, preferences, motivations and expectations, their affective needs, and the institutional policies. In the same way, and following Oxford (1997), teachers should also bear in mind that since knowledge is socially built, fostering pair and group learning activities is a “must” as they enhance motivation, improve self-esteem in students, and lower anxiety and prejudice. Additionally, they are helpful in sharing information, cooperating with each other’s learning, enhancing commitment to subject learning as well as to developing a sense of belonging to the educational institutions and classmates. Furthermore, it is relevant to highlight the valuable element of enjoyment in our practices and in the material being produced for our students, which results in having students motivated and engaged in a comfortable, warmhearted and challenging learning atmosphere. To that extent, Tosta (2001) and Small (1997) assert that an essential element of success in an EFL classroom is the possibility for the class to be an opportunity to learn and the students to find learning enjoyable. For this reason, teachers ought to create materials that promote pleasant learning settings, thereby fostering motivation, interaction, and long-term learning.Moreover, language learning materials constitute a key factor in creating effective teaching and learning environments. Following Tomlinson (1998), these materials could be considered effective if they facilitate the learning of a language by increasing learners’ knowledge, experience and understanding of it and, simultaneously, helping learners learn what they want and need to learn. In addition, the effectiveness of materials used for language teaching depends largely on how meaningful, relevant and motivating they are to the learners. These three conditions are met when there is a match between the materials and tasks proposed in them, with the learners’ needs, interests, attitudes and expectations. In other words, teachers should do their best to develop the most effective, appropriate, and flexible materials for their students and their programs. Above all, materials development requires designers to be reflective, resourceful and receptive (RRR) agents with regard to their teaching practice, besides becoming more willing to take risks and make decisions related to the way they handle classes, and being less willing to single out what should not have been done as well as attentive to complimenting and praising their students’ attempts to perform tasks in a different manner as there are not necessarily incorrect ways to do things, but rather different ways to do them. Consequently, RRR teachers inspire and do most of these things: devote time to teaching, facilitating, and guiding their students’ learning process; implement changes or innovations in their teaching practice; see students as holistic, unique individuals; minimize differences and maximize similarities among students; match students’ language learning needs, concerns and motivation; comply with institutional targets and students’ affective needs in their teaching methodology; create a language learning atmosphere that keeps students’ attention and imagination going; envision and cope with the syllabus models; and deal with the types of learning/teaching activities, the role of the learners as well as that of the instructional materials. Figure 2 depicts the triple RRR acronym and the way we conceive the kind of teachers needed to carry out the process of materials development for teacher development.

This is the planning stage where the developer can prioritise and strategise on issues to consider. The developer is therefore required to:

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  establish the need for the learning material;
  
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  evaluate the existing materials;
  
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  compare the existing materials with identified outcomes of learning reflected
  
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  In the curriculum/programme/module;
  
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  identify gaps between the two;
  
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  understand quality principles for developing learning materials;
  

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  ensure that a system for managing material development quality is in place;
  
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  outline activities or project plan for developing learning materials (Gunnt Chart);
  
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  identify constraints; and
  
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  consider the needs of the target group
  

Input Sources

Inputs are those aspects that the developer needs to bring together when developing learning materials. The developer needs to:

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  identify the learning events or outcomes of learning stated in the
  
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  curriculum/programme/module;
  
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  consider the background and needs of the potential learner;
  
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  consider different types of learning modes;
  
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  link materials being developed to the learning process;
  
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  identify the learning setting;
  
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  identify the learning media;
  
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  state the learning notional time in hours;
  
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  state needed evidence that would show achievement.
  

Resource Mobilisation

The overall objective of resource mobilisation is to make material reach people it is intended for Considerations should be made to:

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  determine resources needed for the efficient implementation the curriculum/programme/module(financial,human,infrastructure,technological);
  

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  develop the learning material;
  
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  synthesise quality requirements;
  
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  match learning with resources;
  
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  emphasise on learner centred approaches;
  
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  infuse Generic Skills;
  
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  determine the layout of the material;
  
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  sequence learning activities;
  
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  infuse self assessment questions/tasks;
  
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  determine the production cost and implications thereof;
  
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  determine availability of storage facilities; and
  
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  determine the printing method;
  

Piloting

Piloting is done to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the developed material in order to take necessary remedial actions prior to its full implementation. The developer is expected to:

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  develop monitoring instruments for piloting;
  

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  identify institutions and/or learners for piloting;
  
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  use a variety of learning methods;
  
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  encourage and receive feedback from the learners and trainers on structure and content, approaches, duration and assessment strategies;
  
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  provide frequent feedback to the learners and trainers; and
  
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  use feedback for ongoing adjustments in the learning process.
  

Revision and Amendment (After Piloting)

Once the material has been piloted, the developer needs to:

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  amend it, as necessary, in accordance with feedback from those involved in the trial run
  
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  To meet the needs of learners, trainers and industry, based on data gathered during the
  
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  Pilot process; and
  
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  prepare the ground, or market it, for full implementation.
  

Implementation

At this stage it is considered that the material can be used to deliver the programme.However, care must be taken to ensure that the material would continue to:

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  support acquisition of relevant and appropriate knowledge, skills and attributes;
  
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  show linkage of learning activities and the world of work;
  
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  address issues of content and application;
  
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  provide formative and summative evaluation, as well as feedback; and
  
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  determine assessment resources;
  

Evaluation

Revision and review of the material should be done regularly, and must, as much as possible be linked to that of the relevant curriculum/programme/module. In order to determine the value factor of the material, evaluation instruments must be developed and implemented to:

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  determine the correlation between the identified needs and the impact of the material on learner’s performance
  
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  establish support of learning material by learners, trainers and industry; and
  
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  establish content and structural correctness.