Reuven Snir "Now what’s going to happen to us without barbarians?"
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“OTHER BARBARIANS WILL COME”: INTERTEXTUALITY, META-POETRY, AND META- MYTH IN MAHMOUD DARWISH’S POETRY Reuven Snir “Now what’s going to happen to us without barbarians?” —C.P. Cavafy, “Waiting for the Barbarians” “I wanted to live outside the History that Empire imposes on its subjects” —J.M. Coetzee, Waiting for the Barbarians
Until the second half of the twentieth century, poetry was the principal channel of literary creativity and served as the chronicle and public register of the Arabs [al-shi‘r diwan al-‘Arab], 1
recording their very appearance on the stage of history. No other genres could challenge the supremacy of poetry in the field of belles lettres across more than 1,500 years of literary history. The high status poetry enjoyed in Arab society as a whole is reflected in a passage by the eleventh-century scholar Ibn Rashiq al-Qayrawani: When a poet appeared in a family of the Arabs, the adjacent tribes would gather together and wish that family the joy of their good luck. Feasts would be got ready, the women of the tribe would join together in bands, playing upon lutes, as they were wont to do at bridals, and the men and boys would congratulate one another; for a poet was a defence of the honour of them all, a weapon to ward off insult from their good name, and a means of perpetuating their glorious deeds and of establishing their fame forever. And they used not to wish one another joy but for three things: the birth of a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the foaling of a noble mare. 2
Only in the second half of the twentieth century was poetry pushed to the margins, 3 and prose, especially the novel, became the leading genre. 4 In the early 1970s, the Egyptian magazine Al-Tali‘a issued a feature called Al-Riwaya mir’at al-sha‘b [The novel is the mirror of the people] (1971: 10–57), and more than twenty years later, upon his nomination as head of the prose committee of the Supreme Council for Culture in Egypt, ‘Ali al-Ra‘i (1920–1999) asserted: “This is the time of the novel.... the novel is the new chronicle of the Arabs [al- riwaya diwan al-‘Arab al-jadid].” 5 Al-Ra‘i’s imputation to the novel of an historical role may be considered an intertextual, ironic allusion to Ibn al-Rashiq’s above quote. “Glory to the Arabic novel!” declared al-Ra‘i, “The best of its writers have made it a mouthpiece of the nation, the new annals of the Arabs, and a reservoir of the hopes and agonies of our great but torn nation” (1991: 19). A book published in 2001 by the Egyptian Taha Wadi (b. 1937) bears the title Al-Qissa diwan al-‘Arab [Fiction is the new annals of the Arabs], and the author explains that the narrative genres have become the new Arab chronicle because “they truly reflect their general and personal reality, the social and subjective one” (Wadi 9).
This change in the status of literary genres is not exclusive to Arabic literature. It is a worldwide phenomenon, and has much to do with the hermetic nature of modern poetry, which has become self-regarding and employs obscure imagery and very subjective language. Several reasons have been given for this phenomenon, such as it being the poet’s way of passing a negative judgment on the complexities of modern life—on the relatively inaccessible sciences, on the multiple belief systems among which people are asked to
discriminate, on the separation of arts from everyday life. Also Arab poets, especially since the mid-1950s, have played down poetry-as-communication or as message and concentrated on exploiting poetry as medium. They tend to write less about public matters and more about themselves and for themselves—or for small coteries equally sensitive. 6 Obscurity is a well-known trait in ancient Arabic literature, especially poetry (Arazi, “Une Epitre” 473– 505), but the nature of that obscurity is different—the difficulties in understanding the traditional Arabic ode, the qasida, with its conventional form and strict theme sequence, was largely owing to linguistic, rhetorical, and stylistic reasons and to the affectation and mannerism that began to influence Arabic literature beginning in the Abbasid period (Dayf,
Arabic poetry underwent a radical change with the emergence of new sensitivity—the public, clear, and unambiguous style was replaced by a more personal, obscure, and ambiguous one. Additionally, the role of the reader in the concretization of meaning has become crucial and the idea of a matter-of-fact interpretation dictated by the author has gradually disappeared. The awareness that it is the reader who makes sense of a text at both a cognitive and emotional level is now very common. In fact, the same person reading the same text in another time and place may understand it differently from the first time he read it. Furthermore, the process of reading itself becomes significant, or as Stanley Fish put it, “a reader’s response to the fifth word in a line or sentence is to a large extent the product of his responses to words one, two, three, and four” (“Literature” 73). It is not only the rational process of constructing meaning that happens gradually but also that of aesthetic experience. “In art,” as Viktor Shklovskij put it, “the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Art is a device for experiencing the process of becoming; that that has already become is of no importance for art” (Theorie 14).
The marginalization of poetry, within the already marginalized role of literature in the age of mass media and the internet, has consigned it to being an intimate activity of the lonely reader, far removed from the declarative traditional tone of neoclassical poetry. Yet, although the relationship between poet and reader has undergone an essential change, poetry still functions as a register of the experiences of human beings, recording their miseries, feelings, hopes, and trials, if in new modes. Moreover, poetry as a means of expressing the struggles of a collective is still being written. One example is the poetry used by the Palestinians to chronicle their nakba (the catastrophe of 1948) and its unending agonies. The present article deals with a chronicle of the Palestinian people in the mid-1980s against the backdrop of the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and prior to the outbreak of the first intifada in the West Bank and Gaza Strip in December 1987; in fact, as that chronicle undertaken by a single poet, Mahmoud Darwish (b. 1941), 7 mainly in one collection, Ward aqall [Fewer Roses] (1986), and more specifically in one poem, “Sa-ya’ti barabira akharun” [“Other Barbarians Will Come”]. The nakba is always there as a kind of background without which this poetry cannot exist, but the work’s main concern is a dialogue with other texts and the interplay not only between reality, poetry, and myth but between poetry, meta- poetry, and meta-myth.
The present essay is an attempt to study the thematic and structural pattern of the collection Ward aqall on various levels. A special attention is given to the rhetorical, metrical, graphical, rhythmic, poetic, meta-poetic, and mythical dimensions of the poems. Also, I will argue that each poem of the collection is a microcosm of the entire collection—a detailed analysis of one poem will thus be presented. Throughout the essay I will show that in the mid-1980s Darwish started to present in his poetry “pretexts” in order to explain his uncontrolled desire to write poetry. Also, although being aware of the inadequacies of language and that it can never fully be a substitute for reality, and recognizing the limits of poetry in effecting change in the social and political spheres, especially its limited power in the face of suffering, he must and does return to language; it is all he has recourse to. In other words, he was eager to show that as a poet he cannot be but a poet.
In one of the first poems in Ward aqall, “Idha kana li an u‘ida al-bidaya” [If I were to start all over again], 8 the persona asks himself what he would do if he were given the chance to start his life all over again:
If I could start all over again I’d choose what I have chosen: roses on the fence. I’d travel again on the roads that may or may not lead to Cordova. I’d hang my shadow on two rocks for fugitive birds to build a nest on my shadow’s bough. I’d break off my shadow to follow the scent of almonds as it wafts on a cloud of dust And feel tired at the foot of the mountains; come and listen to me. Have some of my bread, Drink from my wine and do not leave me on the road of years on my own like a tired willow tree.
I love the countries untrod by migration’s song, and held captive to neither blood nor woman
I love women who in their desires conceal the suicide of horses at the threshold. Andalusian Cordova here is the place the persona was exiled from, the mythological homeland he is longing to return to. But reaching this homeland may always remain an illusion:
I will return, if I can, to my own rose and to my own step, But I will never go back to Cordova... 9
The persona in Darwish’s poetry is not only a man expelled from his homeland but a poet who records the feelings and aspirations of his tribe—a single person from a jama‘a, a collective that imposed on him the task of representation. The personal and public voices are always co-mingled and the persona-poet’s distress is the synecdoche for that of an entire people.
Darwish is only one among numerous Arab poets who, ever since the nineteenth century, have been invoking the image of al-Andalus—Muslim Spain—in their poetry. 10 As such they are part of a much wider phenomenon: a conscious effort on the part of contemporary Arab poets and writers to highlight al-Andalus experience and the benefits Western civilization has gained through its interaction with Arab civilization. 11 Furthermore, when poets recall the cultural achievements of the Arabs in al-Andalus—from the time Arabs and Berber troops crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into Iberia in 711 and overthrew the Visigoths, commencing nearly 800 years of Muslim rule on the peninsula—they do so to remind their audience that their bitter state in modern times is only a transitory period, a temporary clouding of the skies between a glorious past and a splendid future. Though the Andalusian period was one of political fragmentation and local dynasties (known as muluk al- tawa’if, “party kings”), it was also a period of great cultural efflorescence which lasted continuously in one form or another up until the fall of Granada in 1492 to the Christians. Inspired by nostalgia, the picture that most frequently appears in modern Arabic literary
writings is that of al-Andalus as the lost paradise [al-firdaws al-mafqud] or God’s paradise on earth [jannat Allah ‘ala al-ard].
For Mahmoud Darwish, the main Andalusian sites (Cordova, Granada, Toledo, and Seville) are icons whose meanings go far beyond the historical, external, or sensuous dimensions of these places. Cordova, as the famous center of Andalusian learning and culture, is not just the historical city but also a trope for the “Palestinian” experience, signifying the lost paradise. As one Palestinian scholar says: “If circumstances prevented the poet from reaching Jerusalem and he was forced to go to Cordova, the idea is that his creative journey stopped as well and remains a dream with a chance of ever being fulfilled” (al-Ju‘aydi, “Hudur al-Andalus”
17). In Darwish’s poetry, Andalusian sites have the same emotional resonance as “tears, dance and the long embrace of a woman. Al-Andalus is a universal aesthetic and artistic property, but Jerusalem is an aesthetic, spiritual and juristic property” (36). In Psalm 16 from his Mazamir [Psalms] (in Diwan vol. I, 396–397) Darwish flirts with time “as a prince caresses a horse.”
And I play with the days As children play with colored beads.
Today I celebrate The passing of a day from the previous one And tomorrow I shall celebrate The passing of two days from yesterday. I drink the toast of yesterday In remembrance of the day to come And thus do I carry on my life!
When I fell from my indomitable horse And broke an arm My finger, wounded a thousand years ago, Caused me pain!
When I commemorated the passing of forty days in the city of Acre, I burst out weeping for Granada And when the rope of the gallows tightened around my neck I felt a deep hatred for my enemies Because they stole my tie. (translation follows that of Johnson-Davies in Darwish, Music 50)
One of the prominent themes in Darwish’s poetry after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 is the use of al-Andalus as a mirror for Palestine. 12 His series of poems entitled “Ahada ‘ashara kawkaban ‘ala akhir al-mashhad al-Andalusi” [Eleven stars at the end of the Andalusian scene], from the collection Ahada ‘ashara kawkaban [Eleven Planets], is one long repetition of the equation al-Andalus = Palestine = Paradise Lost. Apart from the clear allusion to the advent of the miseries of the “present” following the end of the “Andalusian scene,” the title also “justifies” this end by evoking the biblical and Qur’anic story of Joseph and his brothers (see below). Significantly, Darwish published the collection in 1992, that is, 500 years after the end of Arab rule in al-Andalus, when on January 2, 1492, the combined armies of Castile and Aragon captured the city of Granada, followed by a royal edict that decreed the expulsion of all non-Catholics from the peninsula. The fourth star poem is called “Ana wahid min muluk al-nihaya” [I am one of the kings of the end]:
... And I am one of the Kings of the end... jumping from My horse in the last Winter, I am the last Arab man’s sigh [...] There is no present remaining for me, So I could pass near my past. Castile is raising her Crown over Allah’s minaret. I hear the rattling of keys in The door of our golden history, good-bye our history, will it be me Who will close the last gate of heaven? I am the last Arab man’s sigh. (Ahada 15–16)
Against the glory of the past, which elicits the image of al-Andalus in the present, the only remaining hope—in this long poor “present” that has been enduring for more than 500 years—is survival. Al-Andalus is mere mirage:
Where should we go after the last border? Where do the birds fly after the last sky? Where do the plants sleep after the last breeze? (Ward aqall 17; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 9)
For the time being: Thirty seas have we passed, and sixty shores And our days of wandering continue. (Hiya 43)
Each abode is a temporary shelter in a “series of moveable shelters” (Dhakira 73; Memory 90). “My bundle is my village” (Ward 17), declares one woman in the Athens airport. The men are despairing:
We said to our wives: yield us offspring for hundreds of years so we can complete this journey. Toward an hour of a land, and a meter of the impossible. (Ward 21; for an alternative translation, see Unfortunately 11)
The airport becomes a cross road of repressed desires and frequent frustrations: Where will I fight? asked the fighter. A pregnant woman Shrieked to him: where will I bear your child? [...] Where did you come from? asked the customs’ officials. We responded: From the sea. And where are you heading? they asked. To the sea, we said. [...] A young lad married a maiden, but they could not find any place for a hasty marriage. Where will I pierce her maidenhood? he asked. But we laughed and said: O lad, there is no place for such a question. (Ward 23; for an alternative translation, see Unfortunately 12)
A Palestinian man has been shunted about from emigration to exile, from sea to desert, from detention camp to slaughter: Thus, he confronts other questions besides those of freedom and independence, the questions of normal human existence on the face of the earth: Where to go? Where to give birth? Where to sleep? Where to work? Where to learn? Where to love? Where to write poems? And where to be buried? (Al-Karmil 1985: 216)
We go toward a land not of our flesh. The chestnut trees are not of our bones And its stones are not a goat in the mountain hymn [...] We go toward a land where a personal sun does not shine above us. (Ward 19; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 10)
What an irony, after being expelled from Beirut and Tripoli, thousands of miles away, to find refuge in a place named for the Garden of Eden:
We went to Aden [...] We went to the poverty-stricken paradise of the poor people, so as to open a window in the stone.
The tribes besieged us, O my friend, and cast us into tribulations, Nevertheless we didn’t exchange the bread of the trees for the enemy’s loaf. (Ward 47; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 24)
Rather than surrender they prefer death on the battlefield—“We will write for the thousandth time on the last air: we shall die, but they will not overtake us” (Ward 35; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 18)—but without losing sympathy for the victims among their enemies:
We saw the faces of those who will be killed in the last defense of the spirit by the last of us. We wept for their children’s holiday. And we saw the faces of those who will throw our children From the window of this terminal emptiness. (Ward 17; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 9)
There is not only despair but self-flagellation: “there is no more hope to be placed in the Arabs. A nation which does not deserve to live. A nation in the image of its rulers” (Dhakira 81; Memory 100). When the fighters were about to leave Beirut in 1982, the question remained— whither?
—Is it true we are leaving? —We are leaving. —Where to? —To any Arab place which will take us. —Won’t they be willing to accept us when we leave? —Some of them won’t even take our corpses. The United States is asking some of them to agree to receive us. —The United States? —Yes, the United States. —Do you mean that [the Arabs] want us to commit suicide and stay in Beirut? —They can’t stand our steadfastness. They aren’t telling us to commit suicide, like the Libyan Colonel [Qadhafi]; they just don’t want us to stay in Beirut, or any other place on earth. They want us to leave, to leave Arabism and leave life. —To leave it for what destination?
—Nothingness! (Dhakira 105–106; Memory 132–133)
A substantive change has taken place over the years in the attitude of the Arabs: There were times when a blow to Palestine filled the Arab street with gloom, turmoil and rage. The Arab street would overthrow the ruler for any injury whatsoever to this collective heart. Now, the rulers are bribing the street in order to make it renege on this consensus. The official Arab weaponry has been turned publicly against Palestinian activity and ideology and is making them fully responsible for the wretchedness and subjugation of the Arab nation. Were it not for Palestine—the mirage, the unattainable, the imaginary [...] our freedom would be fuller and our prosperity even greater. (Dhakira 84; Memory 105)
Moreover: Palestine has been transformed from a homeland into an empty slogan, a commentary on events, adorning the rhetoric of revolutions, dismantling political parties and preventing the sowing of wheat, the exchange of labor for quick profits, and the development of the industry of revolution. (Dhakira 40; Memory 49)
The various conferences that convene to discuss the Palestinian tragedy are a source of bitter irony. At one of them, the persona takes the floor to ask:
Good ladies and gentlemen: is the earth of man for every man As you claim? Where thus is my little hut, and where am I?
The best that the Arabs could supply is
Three minutes of freedom and recognition. The conference affirmed Our right to return, like all chickens and horses, to a dream made of stone. One by one, I shake their hands, and bow my head, and continue this journey To another land, to say something about the difference between the mirage and the rain. (Ward 25; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 13)
1998), becomes greater and greater “and our defeats grow bigger... and our hopes dwindle” (Qabbani 6–7). Even the Palestinian revolution itself has clearly gone off course: Perhaps it is appropriate to judge the revolution for its absence of a tradition for judging its leadership’s crimes, which cry out to heaven. Instead, the judging was limited to following the moral crimes of the future martyrs while pursuing the transitory pleasures of a hashish cigarette or seductive women, before their bodies become a podium for speeches. (Dhakira 27; Memory 31)
But, as the poet describes in an earlier collection, there will be harder days ahead: There will be blacker night. There will be fewer and fewer roses The trail will split even more than we have seen, the plains will be sundered, The foot of the mountain will heave out upon us, a wound will collapse upon us, families will be scattered. The slaughtered among us will slaughter the slaughtered, to forget the slaughtered’s eyes, and to erase memory. We will know more than we knew, we will reach an abyss beyond the abysses when we rise above
A thought which the tribes worshipped then roasted it on the flesh of its originators, when they had grown fewer. We will see among us emperors etching their names in wheat in order to refer to Ourselves. Haven’t we changed? Men who slaughter with the faith of their daggers, and more and more sand, Women with the faith of what is between their thighs, and less and less shadow...
Still, I will follow the path of song, even though I have fewer and fewer roses. (Ward 45; for a translation of the entire poem, see Unfortunately 23)
In “Al-Kamanjat” [Violins], the memory of the lost paradise also becomes the lost territory of love:
Violins are weeping, seeing the gypsies coming to al-Andalus Violins are weeping over the Arabs leaving al-Andalus
Violins are weeping over lost time which will never return Violins are weeping over a lost homeland that could return
Violins are burning the forests of that very far darkness Violins are causing knives to bleed and are smelling the blood in my veins
Violins are weeping, seeing the gypsies coming to al-Andalus Violins are weeping over the Arabs leaving al-Andalus
Violins are horses on the string of a mirage, and weeping water Violins are a field of wild lilacs to-ing and fro-ing
Violins are a wild animal tortured by a woman’s fingernail Violins are an army building a cemetery of marble and music
Violins are a chaos of hearts maddened by the wind blowing at the dancer’s foot Violins are groups of birds escaping the missed flag
Violins are the complaint of the creased silk during the beloved’s night Violins are the voice of distant wine on a former desire
Violins are walking after me, here and there, to take revenge on me Violins are looking to kill me, wherever they can find me
Violins are weeping over the Arabs leaving al-Andalus Violins are weeping, seeing the gypsies coming to al-Andalus 13
In another poem Darwish asks his friend to “tear the arteries of my ancient heart with the poem of the gypsies who are going to al-Andalus/ and sing to my departure from the sands and the ancient poets” (Hisar 23).
The Palestinian miseries as illustrated in the image of the Andalusian paradise lost are the major stimuli behind the collection Ward aqall, whose poems were written during and in the wake of the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon.
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