Samarqand davlat chet tillar instituti ingliz tili II fakulteti ingliz tili nazariyasi va adabiyoti kafedrasi

REFERENCES
1. Brosnahan, L. Russian and English Nonverbal Communication [Text] / L. Brosnahan. – M.: Bilingua, 1998. –119 p.
2. Fairclough, N. language and Power [Text] / N. Fairclough. – London: Longman, 1989. – 226 p.
3. Griffin, Em. A First Look at Communication Theory [Text] / Em. Griffin. – New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc: 1997. – 257 p.
4. Lucas, S. The Art of Public Speaking / S. Lucas. – NY, 2001. – 327 p.
5. Osborn, M. Public Speaking [Text] / Michael Osborn, Suzanne Osborn. – Moughton Mifflin Company: 2000. – 512 p.


Seminar 4. History of public speaking "Classical period" (500 BC - 400 BC) Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Sophist.”
Aim: To acquaint students with history of oratory techniques applicable to their own learning and teaching situations
Objectives: By the end of the course students will
• obtain an overview of key issues and research findings in oratory discussions and the ideas of the course to their thoughts and experiences both as learners and future teachers
• reflect on their own language learning processes by linking theories of oratory with practical experience.
Plato
Aristotle identified the basic elements of good speech and persuasion as ethos, logos, and pathos. The ethos (credibility, believability) of the speaker was important; the logos (logic) behind any conclusions drawn by the speaker during the course of the speech needed to be valid and clear; and the pathos (emotional appeals) were important in making human connections between the speaker and the listener. Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion.”
Aristotle
Rome succeeded Athens as the political, military, and philosophical center of the ancient world. During the first century BCE, Marcus Tullius Cicero (c. 106-43 BCE) rose to power as an orator, lawyer, politician, and philosopher. He developed what we call the five canons (canon=rule) of rhetoric still used today: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. He urged his students to seek all possible means of argument (invention), put those arguments in the order best suited for the situation (arrangement), use the best and most expressive language (style), memorize the presentation (memory), and present the speech with the best gestures, expressions, and volume (delivery). Some speeches given in ancient Greece and Rome were so famous that speech students then – and now – read them as literature. “Rhetoric is one great art comprised of five lesser arts: inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio." Rhetoric is "speech designed to persuade."
Cicero
In the United States, the right to our freedom of speech is more than words on a piece of yellowed parchment on display in Washington, D.C. Prior to the adoption of the Bill of Rights, a citizen could be arrested, tried, and hung by the neck until dead for speaking out against government policies. When Patrick Henry famously declaimed, “Give me liberty or give me death!” on March 23, 1775, he wasn’t overstating the case. He was uttering words that were treason in England. And the colonies were still English. Could he have been executed for speaking his mind? Yes. Henry Clay earned a reputation for pacifism and oratory as the “Great Compromiser,” engineering the Great Compromise of 1850 (which we know as the Missouri Compromise today) through his impassioned speaking in the U.S. Senate.
Although few of you might remember hearing him speak during the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy’s ringing words, “Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for your country,” stirred hearts and minds at his 1961 inaugural, ultimately leading hundreds of young Americans to enlist in the new Peace Corps after its establishment just a few months later. Public speech is still the cornerstone of both our governmental system and our judicial system. Congressmen speak aloud on the floors of the Senate and the House – you can tune into C-SPAN and watch them around the clock. The Constitution, Article II, Section 3, demands that the President share the state of the union with the Congress. George Washington delivered the first address in January of 1790 and George W. Bush continued the tradition on February 2, 2005. Our courts of law demand that those accused step before the bar and explain themselves. Our preachers stand before our congregations and speak aloud their interpretations of scripture. So Americans have both a national tradition and an historical culture of public speech that cannot be ignored.
The Ancient Greeks
About 2,500 years ago in ancient Athens young men had to make speeches as citizens. Athens was one of history's earliest and most radical democratic governments, in which public speaking was an important part of everyday life. During this time Greek citizens met in the marketplace (agora) for debating politics and economic issues. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, noted Greek speakers living during the fourth and third centuries B.C. were known for their speeches on democracy.
The "Attic Ten"
Because the people didn't have lawyers for defending themselves, it was necessary for individual citizens to have the needed skills for presenting their cases. The "Attic Ten" were Greek speechmakers who formed schools which produced famous students such as Demosthenes, who's still regarded as the greatest ancient Greek orator. Demonsthnes had a straightforward speaking style lacking rhetorical flair. Although his speeches were popular, this manner of speaking was thought to be almost vulgar for the standards of his time period.
The Romans
Rome followed Athens as the ancient world's leader in politics, the military and philosophy. As a young man in his 20s, Marcus Tullius Cicero, pleaded cases in the public forum during the first century B.C. This leading Roman orator, politician, lawyer and philosopher developed the five canons of rhetoric, which continues to be used in modern-day law courtrooms. The five canons include invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery. In the second century A.D., the Roman Forum was built, which was used for public speaking.
America's Early Public Speakers
Through their intense speeches, persuasive colonial speakers urged the American colonists to take action. Powerful orators addressed the Colonial congresses and Constitutional Convention. A few of the most famous speeches from America's early days include Patrick Henry's noted "Liberty of Death" speech (1775) and the Farewell Address of George Washington. President Abraham Lincoln gave his famous "Gettysburg Address" in 1863, followed by forceful debates and anti-slavery speeches which helped end slavery in the United States.
20th Century Developments
Public speaking was first taught in American by Dale Carnegie in 1908. Tufts University aired the first radio broadcast in 1916, leading the way for the first speeches given to mass radio audiences. Toastmasters, an organization formed to help train public speakers, began in 1924. The first scheduled television service began in 1928, leading the way for communication using visual technology. Dr. Martin Luther King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, which called for ending racism in America.
The Internet
In the 1980s the history of Internet mass communication began with pioneer services providing worldwide public speaking to the first Internet users. By the 1990s the Internet was booming as more speakers on the web carried their messages around the world. The popular YouTube service began in 2005, which allowed amateur speakers wide exposure in communicating. Since then, speakers ranging from political candidates to comedians have been spreading their messages globally through online video sharing.
History of Public Speaking
The formal study of public speaking began approximately 2,500 years ago in
Greece and Rome to train citizens to participate in society.
•Aristotle (384-322 BCE), the most famous Greek Scholar, defined rhetoric as
the “faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever.” He divided the “means of persuasion” into three parts--logical reason (logos), human character (ethos), and emotional.
•Cicero (106-43 BCE), one of the most significant rhetoricians of all time,
developed the five canons of rhetoric, a five-step process for developing a persuasive speech that we still use to teach public speaking today.
•Quintilian (c. 35-95 CE) argued that public speaking was inherently moral. He
stated that the ideal orator is “a good man speaking well”.
•American Revolution--The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were
resurrected as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero and others to inspire defense of the new republic. John Quincy Adams of Harvard advocated for the democratic advancement of the art of rhetoric.
•Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of
study with the establishment of public speaking courses in high schools and universities. The courses in speaking apply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos).
Old School--Classical Studies in Greece and Rome
Our current knowledge and practice of public speaking draws upon the Western thought from Greece and Rome.
The Classical Period (500 BCE-400 BCE)
Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, public speaking emerged as a crucial tool. We will begin our tour of Ancient Greece with the “fantastic four”—Aspasia of Miletus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Aspasia of Miletus (469 BCE), the “mother of rhetoric,” is believed to have taught rhetoric to Socrates. During this period Pericles, the Athenian ruler and Aspasia’s partner, treated Aspasia as an equal and allowed her every opportunity to engage in dialogue with the important and educated men of society.
Socrates (469-399 BCE) greatly influenced the direction of the Classical Period. Most of what we know about Socrates comes from the writings of his student Plato.
Plato (429-347 BCE) wrote about rhetoric in the form of dialogues with Socrates as the main character. Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth.
Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Figure 1 is the most famous Greek Scholar. Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy where he later taught public speaking until Plato’s death in 347 BCE, when he opened his own school of politics, science, philosophy, and rhetoric. Aristotle defined rhetoric as the “faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever.” Aristotle divided the “means of persuasion” into three parts, or three artistic proofs, necessary to persuade others: logical reason (logos), human character (ethos), and emotional appeal (pathos).
Sophist (400s BCE): The Classical Period flourished for nearly a millennium in and around Greece as democracy gained prominence. Citizens learned public speakingfrom early teachers known as Sophists. Sophists were self-appointed professors of how to succeed in the civic life of the Greek states.
The Romans--Cicero and Quintilian
Cicero (106-43 BCE) Cicero is considered one of the most significant rhetoricians of all time. His works include the early and very influential De Inventione (On Invention), often read alongside the Ad Herennium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), De Oratore (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue form), Topics (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance). Cicero is most famous in the field of public speaking for creating the five canons of rhetoric, a five-step process for developing a persuasive speech that we still use to teach public speaking today.Quintilian (c. 35-95 CE) extended this line of thinking and argued that public speaking was inherently moral. He stated that the ideal orator is “a good man speaking well."The Classical Period laid the foundation of our field and continues to impact our modern day practice of public speaking.
The Medieval Period (400 CE-1400 CE)
In contrast to the Classical Period, which saw tremendous growth and innovation in the study of communication, the Medieval Period might be considered the dark ages of academic study in public speaking. The church felt threatened by secular rhetorical works they considered full of pagan thought. The Church did, however, focus on persuasion and developing public presentation to improve preaching. St. Augustine (354 CE-430 CE), a Christian clergyman and renowned rhetorician, argued for the continued development of ideas that had originated during the Classical Period. He thought that the study of persuasion, in particular, was a worthwhile pursuit for the church.
The Renaissance (1400-1600 CE)
Powered by a new intellectual movement during this period, secular institutions and governments started to compete with the church for personal allegiances. Ideas surrounding issues of style in speaking situations received significant attention during the Renaissance period.
Petrus Ramus (1515-1572) paid great attention to the idea of style by actually grouping style and delivery of the five canons together. Ramus also argued that invention and arrangement did not fit the canon and should be the focus of logic, not rhetoric. Ramus challenged much of what early scholars thought of truth, ethics, and morals as they applied to communication.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a contemporary of Shakespeare, believed that the journey to truth was paramount to the study and performance of communication. According to Bacon, reason and morality required speakers to have a high degree of accountability, making it an essential element in oration.
The Enlightenment (1600-1800 CE)
Neoclassicism revived the classical approach to rhetoric by adapting and applying it to contemporary situations. George Campbell (1719-1796),he Scottish minister and educator, tried to create convincing arguments using scientific and moral reasoning by seeking to understand how people used speech to persuade others. Finally, the elocutionary approach (mid 1700's to mid-1800's) concentrated on delivery and style by providing strict rules for a speaker’s bodily actions such as gestures, facial expressions, tone, and pronunciation.
Overall, the Enlightenment Period served as a bridge between the past and the present. Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in the wake of the US and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected in the studies of the era as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero and others to inspire defense of the new republic. Leading rhetorical theorists included John Quincy Adams of Harvard advocated for the democratic advancement of the art of rhetoric.
New School--1900s and 2000s Through Today
Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos as well as trace rhetorical development throughout the course of history. 1960’s and 70’s saw renewed emphasis and focus on the works of those from the Classical Period. Thus, the 60’s and 70’s worked to bridge together the old and new school of Communication study for the first time. Communication departments had professors who studied and taught classical rhetoric, contemporary rhetoric, along with empirical and qualitative social science.
History and importance of public communication
Public communication or most likely speaking exists since the beginning of time. Literally spoken, the man has the desire to communicate political and social issues and that's a component of our interaction between different type of people since the ancient civilizations, being one of the oldest forms of communication, as well as the first known mass communication process brought to existence. Later on, when a number of individuals from different families formed a complete unit in a composition, a clan or a tribe, still recognized the status and command of their leader. Drama is one of the aspects which influenced most of the primitive communities, as well as entertainment and religion through oral way. During this time, extremely well-organized associations and different type of parties discuss all the matters together for a particular purpose.
All the important epochs of the world's progress express the importance of speech upon the action of a particular or multiple groups of individuals. Beyond the rectangular public space known as Roman Forum, which represents a great social significance , speeches were made public and were affecting the entire ancient world. Taking a look back at Renaissance Italy, imperial Spain, unwieldy Russia, freedom loving England, revolutionary France, we can notice that all experienced periods when the power of certain men to communicate stirred other men into tempestuous action.
The uninterrupted influence of exceptional speakers upon others can be also found in the history of United States. Most of the colonists were led to actions accomplished together by the power of persuasive speeches. The Colonial Congresses and Constitutional Convention were also ruled by capable and skilled individuals in public speech. The well-known speeches and debates seem to be the main issue of slavery. Almost all the representative Americans such as presidents had the function of a leader most likely because their impressive and outstanding qualifications when it comes up to expressing feelings which everyone would like to hear about. Throughout the Great War, millions of the world were not worried just about the fact what their leaders were saying, but what actions their other leaders were taking into consideration.
There is no particular looks of modern life in which the spoken work is not given a great significant importance. Leaders and affiliates of the world nations decided upon a peace treaty and deliberating upon a League of Nations sway and are swayed by speech. National meetings named new ones of early nations to the century old organizations speak, and listen to speeches. In state legislatures, municipal councils, law courts, religious organizations, theaters, lodges, societies, boards of directors, stockholders' meetings, business discussions, classrooms, dinner parties, social functions, friendly calls in every human relationship where two individuals meet there is communication by means of speech.
History of Public Speaking
As in day to day conversation, being funny in public speaking is a great skill to possess. It has a number of benefits for the speaker in helping to win over your audience. And in certain circumstances it is expected, e.g. after dinner speeches the audience wants light relief rather than a deep discussion.However, if you are not comfortable in using humor in your speech, it can still be an interesting and informative for your listeners. It is important to note the reason you were invited to speak - your expertise and to deliver a speech on a subject that will be of interest to the audience. If they had wanted to be entertained they would have invited an entertainer.
For a speech to be successful the following ingredients are required:-- Know you subject in depth. Become an expert in your subject by drawing on your own experience and researching other sources. Your audience can tell when you have a shallow understanding of your subject. A deep understanding of your subject builds confidence.- Know your listener's wants, expectations and their background. This knowledge is vital when preparing your speech - different audiences will require different approaches to the delivery of your speech e.g. a
professional organisation will probably require a different presentation to one given to a sales convention- Be thoroughly prepared.
Prepare a detailed outline of your speech. Then practice until you are confident about delivering your speech. If possible practice your delivery in front of your family and friends. Ask for feedback and incorporate any improvements into your speech. Thorough preparation is key to the confident and successful delivery of your speech.- Your language and delivery should be conversational in style. This is more likely to happen when you talk from an outline rather than reading your speech, or where you have memorized the speech. A memorized speech or one read maybe stilted and be in the language of print rather than that used in everyday conversation. Your audience will relate more to day to day language than fancy language. It is the language they use every day. But in your first appearances it can be easier to read or memorize your speech and alter the language to that of spoken rather than written language.- Be interested and enthusiastic about the topic you are speaking about.
The interest and enthusiasm you demonstrate will win your audience over.In conclusion you do not have to be funny to be successful in public speaking. Public speaking is about the effective communication of ideas to your listener. Humor can make that easier but it is not essential. A well delivered speech that is interesting and informative can be as effective as one delivered with humor.
Some of the Greatest Public Speakers in History
Oratory was always viewed as the natural skill of a leader as it connects a true leader with the greater masses and thus we find in the history of mankind a number of great leaders who had a natural ability to sway the public with their glaring rhetoric and mobilized the whole nation in the path of greater and nobler goals. Speech was their mouthpiece to reach out to the people and unite them for the causes of society and the nation. The politicians like Abraham Lincoln, Hitler or Charles De Gaulle used their fine oratory skills to redefine the fate of their nations. History is full of evidences where public speaking was used as a weapon to ignite group consciousness and waging battles to win the human rights.
Martin Luther King, Jrs inspirational speeches created the same impact for the emancipation of African Americans in the USA as the non-violence preaching of Gandhi did for the winning of independence by the Indian people from British Government. Thus rhetoric has always been regarded as the deciding factor of history and the individuals who used this tool to spread their views among general masses always occupied a special place not only in the pages of historical chronicles, also in the hearts of the people for many generations.
If we trace the etymological origin, we can see that the word, orator was a derivative of the Latin word for speaker oro, meaning "I speak" or "I pray". While in modern sense of the term the word orator simply means the art of public speaking, in more refined sense it refers to a skill that is exercised on special occasions and delivered in a rather elaborate and ostentatious manner. Then rhetoric is another word that closely relates to public speaking which derives its origin from a Greek word, Rhetor that is used to refer to a wonderful speech.
Oratory or rhetoric, any way you choose to describe this astounding art of public speaking was believed to originate in ancient Rome where Ars Oratoria or the art of speaking in public was regarded as an essential professional qualification of politicians and lawyers. It was taught by the Sophists. But it was the Greek who were believed to truly master the art of public speaking and as a result the children from the aristocratic Roman families were packed off to Rome to train themselves in this art. The ancient and Medieval Greece and Rome thus became the breeding ground of the orators, whose speeches are still consulted by the modern aspiring public speakers to learn the nuances of public speaking. Demosthenes, Cicero, Marcus Porcius Cato, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Paul of Tarsos, Peter the Hermitall belonged to this genre of early public speakers.
In latter course of history, Aristotle and Quintilian developed a theory of rhetoric that divided this art into three major categories: 1. Deliberativeto convince the audience on certain matters; (b) forensicto make the audience agree or disagree on certain matters; (c) epideicticdisplay rhetoric to deliver for ceremonial purposes.
In the middle ages, Rhetoric was an important branch of liberal arts curriculum. The following centuries saw their practical and more significant application in three major areas of public lifepolitics, religion, and law. However till Renaissance, oratory was not independent of the institution of Church and thus it used to be an useful instrument in the hands of those holding high offices of Church to preach the common people about the supremacy of Church over the King. And thus the age produced some of the greatest orators of all time like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Knox.
The 18th century Europe witnessed the rise of a new generation of orators like Danton and Mirabeau, or Edmund Burke, Henry Gratten, and Daniel O'Connell who with their erudite rhetoric succeeded in contributing important chapters in the theory of politics and other aspects of public life. The same was contributed by Patrick Henry and James Otis in the United States during this time. However, they were too erudite to connect to the common masses and it was with the emergence of the methodical and evangelical school of orators like John Wesley, George Whitefield, Disraeli, John Bright, Mazzini who with their emotional tones were able to cut a wider mass appeal. Some of the greatest American orators like Abraham Lincoln, Henry Clay, Calhoun, Daniel Webster or Stephen Douglas were believed to be influenced by this school of oratory.
The rhetoric of the twentieth century speakers were famously replete with catch phrases and some of the famous speeches of William Jennings Bryan, Eugene Debs, Susan B. Anthony, Woodrow Wilson, Lenin and Trotsky and David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill reflected this style. During Second World War the burning speeches of Hitler or Mussolini introduced a propagandist style in the art of speech writing. The world leaders and successful men and women in their respective fields in latter course of history, who were respected for their oratory skills are believed to borrow heavily from the style and tradition of the these historical speakers who with mere word power were able to set the course of human history.