Shovak O. I. Fundamentals of the Theory of Speech Communication

presuppositions;

indexical expressions;

metaphor;

Communication itself, quite apart from mere speaking alone, often goes beyond the bounds of what is literally said. To account for the gap between what is said and what is communicated, several of the pragmatic theories that we will outline below make general appeals to the conventions and assumptions that trigger inferences, to intentions, or to shared knowledge and beliefs. All the theories are concerned with communication.

3. 
   a. Conversational maxims and implicatures
   

Conversational maxims and implicatures are the foundation of H.P. Grice's pragmatic account of communication. To account for the distinction between what is directly said and what is conveyed by an utterance, Grice proposed that in conversing, participants proceed according to an implicit assumption that he terms the cooperative priniciple: "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." Another set of assumptions, called conversational maxims, underlie the cooperative principle:

1. 
   Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
   

1. 
   Do not say what you believe to be false.
   
2. 
   Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
   

2. 
   Quantity
   

(1}Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange.

2. 
   Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
   

3. 
   Relation: Be relevant.
   
4. 
   Manner: Be perspicuous.
   

1. 
   Avoid obscurity of expression.
   
2.