Teacher: Nasridinov. M

Project for English

“Buildings”

Teacher: Nasridinov. M

Student: Krim-Axunov. I

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Buildings are one of the types of construction structures. The scientific, technical and regulatory literature often uses a combination of the words “buildings and structures”. In this combination, “structures” are understood in meaning as “other construction structures that are not buildings”, for example, engineering structures (bridges, chimneys, masts, radio and television towers and more), underground structures (tunnels, underground metro structures, shelters and more), memorial and architectural structures.
Buildings have numerous types that are determined by their functional purpose, height or number of aboveground floors, architectural style, structural system, construction technology and materials of load-bearing structures.
The word “building” probably formed from the once-existing verb “zdati”, which meant “build”, in another source from the unsupported church “build” - to build, build, build [1]. The verb “zdati” came, in turn, from the noun “zd” - “clay” - since clay was actively used as building material. From this verb the words “ozdic”, “create” [3] occurred.
In English, the word “building” (“building”, “building”) is also derived from the verb “build”. A similar thing is observed in German: “Gebäude” (“building”, “building”) is a derivative of bauen (“build”).

The buildings consist of structures that are divided into loaders, enclosures and combined in their function.

Bearing structures ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of the building as a whole and its individual parts under the influence of loads from the weight of people, furniture, equipment, wind, seismic, snow and other temporary loads. According to Russian standards for the construction of the late 20th century, the strength of the load-bearing structures should take into account the stability of the building in possible terrorist attacks and in household gas explosions [17].
The main purpose of the enclosing structures is to ensure heat protection, soundproofing, fire resistance, etc. p. But at the same time, all enclosing structures must have the necessary strength and rigidity. So, for example, overlapping internal self-supporting partitions, which, when dividing the premises of the building, perform protective functions, must counteract the loads from the wind through open open open open open openings and have the necessary strength to hang paintings, televisions and other equipment on them.
The supporting structures of the building are usually divided into vertical and horizontal [17] [18]. In one-story buildings in the form of domes and shells, based directly on the foundations, the supporting structures are combined. They do not have vertical and horizontal components. In modern buildings, some supporting structures can be located in inclined planes, for example, outer walls. Therefore, by analogy with the designs of bridges, to describe the type of load-bearing structures instead of terms, vertical and horizontal load-bearing structures use reference and spanning structures, respectively. The following are the latest terms.
Span structures are used to block the interior and exterior of the building. The span structures are made in the form of beam cells, plates, arches and farms, on which the plates of floors and coatings, arches, domes, shells, stairwells and marches rest. For static functions, span structures are divided into unsupported and spacer ones. Unspinning structures include beams, farms and plates, as well as beams and arches with puffs that perceive the spacers inside the span structure. In unsupported and spacer span structures, in turn, flat and spatial patterns of their deformation under load are distinguished. The constructions corresponding to these deformation schemes are called flat and spatial for reduction (these terms should not be confused with the same names of the forms of structures).
Reference structures perceive and transfer to the foundations efforts from their own weight, flying structures, technological equipment and architectural parts based on them. The supporting structures of the building are made of linear, flat or spatial elements and their various combinations [19]. Linear elements form a frame. In the frame, in turn, reference elements (columns, racks) and span (beams, arches) differ. A frame can consist only of racks on which the span structures of the building directly rely. The flat-balled support structures are the supporting walls on which the floors and the covering of the building rest. In addition to the bearing walls, it is customary to distinguish self-supporting and non-carrying walls of the building. Self-supporting walls perceive and transmit to the foundations a vertical load only from their own weight and balconies, cornices and architectural details that are part of the wall. The aircraft-bearing walls do not rest on the span structures of the floors and the coverings of the building. Non-rejing walls include partitions mounted on the floors and external walls that do not have foundations and are slapped or suspended on a floor to the internal structures of the building (sometimes non-wearing walls with supports through the floor are used) [17]. Spatial support structures are enclosed frame and wall elements that form internal hollow trunks (stair cells, elevator and ventilation shafts) and the outer load-bearing shells of the building, which Fazlur Khan, who first used such structures in high-rise construction, called pipes. Some authors distinguish pillars formed by prefabricated volumetric blocks into an independent, fifth type of vertical structures [20]. In such pillars, the load-bearing elements are walls, and the span - ceilings that are monolithically connected to the walls. The method of design characterizes the type of construction system. Therefore, vertical structures of buildings from volumetric blocks are one of the options for wall support structures.
Combined structures are simultaneously supporting and span structures. For example, shells blocking large living rooms (exhibition rooms, indoor stadiums, etc. p.) and based directly on the foundations, are characteristic examples of combined building structures.




The building, as a work of architecture, is a structure that meets the laws of beauty, creates an environment for the life and work of people and has the necessary reliability. [sixteen]. Beauty criteria have changed over the centuries. They corresponded to various architectural styles. The architectural solution ensures the fulfillment of the functional requirements for the building in terms of the size of individual rooms and the building as a whole, its shape, floor, appearance and operational qualities. The reliability of the building is ensured by the use of architectural and structural solutions that have the necessary strength and resistance to all possible loads and impacts, the required durability, fire resistance.

Depending on the design scheme and the method of transferring loads to the base, the foundations are divided into tape — in the form of a tape, a continuation of the bearing wall of the building; tetanus — in the form of separate pillars or a system of pillars and foundation beams; solid — in the form of a plate under the whole building; pile — in the form of separate piles, interconnected with the help of a role-playing. According to the method of production, the foundations are divided into monolithic and prefabricated. Depending on the structural diagram of the building, the nature and magnitude of the loads acting on the foundation, the presence of a basement, the depth of freezing of the soil and hydrogeological conditions, the material, design, size and depth of the foundation sole are assigned. The upper cut of the foundations is 150 mm below the floor level of the first floor. Band-mounted foundations are usually created under solid load-bearing walls. In cross section form, these foundations are rectangular, trapezoidal and stepwise. The tape foundations transmit the load to the base evenly, which is especially important for weak and heterogeneous compressibility soils, as well as cushioning macroporous soils. Need help writing a abstract?

onboard tape foundations are made of concrete and reinforced concrete blocks of factory manufacture, which gives a number of advantages; labor costs are reduced, work is facilitated in the winter. Such foundations consist of unified foundation plates and wall rectangular blocks. In prefabricated tape foundations erected on weak, highly compressed or macroporous cushioning soils, to increase rigidity, they create on-top-endant blocks-blowers around the entire perimeter of the walls of the building with a reinforced seam 3-5 cm thick, and on top of the foundation an reinforced belt (monolite or prefabricated) at the level of the cut of the foundation 10-15 cm thick. Monolithic tape foundations are manufactured at the construction site of the building. The material for such foundations can be concrete, butobetone, reinforced concrete, butchery. Boothone monolithic tape foundations are widely used in mass construction, since they are economical, they can be manufactured in a mechanized way through the use of inventory panel formwork. In areas where the beadstone is a cheap local building material, butt foundations are used. Column foundations are arranged under load walls at low loads, when the pressure transmitted by the foundation to the ground is much less than allowed, as well as at a high depth of the soil, which can serve as the basis. Reinforced concrete foundation beams are laid on column foundations, which perceive the load from the walls and bind them among themselves. Column foundations are mainly given a step shape. Under the columns of frame buildings, column foundations are performed by monolithic reinforced concrete or prefabricated concrete and reinforced concrete elements in the form of glass-type shoes.

Solid foundations in the form of monolithic reinforced concrete ribbed or beam-free plates are arranged for the entire building or structure in cases where a significant load acts on the foundation, and the soil of the base is very weak with uneven seepage or when it is necessary to protect the basement from penetrating groundwater at a high level. Sways and pile foundations in modern construction are widespread, as their use can significantly reduce the volume of earthworks and concrete consumption. Seals by type of materials can be wooden, concrete, reinforced concrete and metal. In the geometric shape of the cross section, piles are round, rectangular and multifaceted. Reinforced concrete piles are made solid or hollow (frequent piles and swi-shells). According to the method of production, swabs are distinguished - ready-made piles, immersed in the soil with the help of hammers and vibration loaders, and stuffed (brownab), manufactured directly in a well previously made in the soil. With its lower end, it can rely on practically uncompressed soils: rocky, coarse, dense dry clay and transfer the entire load to the ground of the base in the area of its cross section. Such piles are called swivels. Another species of piles - hanging - does not reach the uncompressed soils with its lower end and, immersed in weak soil, seals it; the load from the structure is perceived by the soil both in the cross section area of the piles and in the entire area of its lateral surface due to the emerging friction forces. The group of piles (pump bush) forming a pile foundation is tied at the top with a rigid structure - a socket in the form of a beam or plate, ensuring uniform transfer of the load from the structure to all piles of the bush and preventing the horizontal displacement of the upper part of the piles. Rostworms in most cases are made of reinforced concrete. The bush of piles, united by a single mouthpiece, is called a pile foundation. The group of piles (pump bush) forming a pile foundation is tied at the top with a rigid structure - a socket in the form of a beam or plate, ensuring uniform transfer of the load from the structure to all piles of the bush and preventing the horizontal displacement of the upper part of the piles. Rostworms in most cases are made of reinforced concrete. The bush of piles, united by a single ruler, is called a pile foundation. To divert from the foundation and cap of atmospheric precipitation, brushes or sidewalks serve. To protect the walls from capillary moisture rising in the mass of the foundation and base from wet soil, as well as from flooding of the cellars with groundwater, horizontal and vertical waterproofing of the foundations and walls of the cellars is used: plaster, adhesive and rigid.

When building buildings and structures, the following types of masonry are used: - brick; - a masonry of ceramic stones; - a masonry of artificial large blocks made of concrete, brick or ceramic stones; plastic pressing masonry. Due to good resistance to moisture, high strength, frost resistance it is used in the construction of walls and pillars of buildings and structures, retaining walls and other structures; — masonry from silicate, ceramic brick of semi-dry pressing and ceramic hollow brick are unsuitable for the construction of structures, which will be in raw soil, as well as in wet and wet rooms, for the installation of furnaces, pipes, smoke channels; — a cladding of ceramic hollow or porous-frequency brick should be used for building walls. These types of masonry are able to maintain heat, so the thickness of the outer walls can be reduced by 20-25%; - masonry of natural stones of the correct shape (drunk or shabby). It has high strength, resistance against weathering and freezing, low abrasion, decorativeness. Processed natural hard rock stones due to the high cost and complexity of processing are mainly used for cladding of socles and other parts of monumental public buildings; — butcher of natural uncouth stones, having the wrong shape; — mixed (butovy, doused with brick; from concrete stones, doused with brick; from brick, doused with a mesh stone) — concrete stone butobetone, made on heavy concrete, intended for the construction of foundations, walls of basements and other underground structures; — lightweight from brick and other materials. The plastic and light-concrete stone clutch is used to erect the outer and inner walls of buildings. Light-concrete and hollow stones have good thermal insulating properties. Low-meat light-concrete and hollow concrete stones are used only for the construction of structures inside the building, in rooms with normal thermal mode. The cladding of silicate stones is more thermal conductive, has a higher density, but at the same time more durable and durable than the masonry of light concrete stones. Therefore, not only internal but also external walls are laid out of silicate stones. A ceramic hollow stone clutch can be used to erect the outer walls of heated buildings. This masonry has high thermal properties, so the thickness of the outer walls can be reduced by polkirpich compared to the masonry of ceramic or silicate brick. The cladding of large concrete, silicate or brick blocks, as well as from piece materials, is used to erect underground and aboveground structures of buildings and structures. Soft porous rocks in the form of sawn piece stones weighing up to 40-45 kg serve to masonry the outer and inner walls of buildings. Booth and bead masonry are time consuming and have significant thermal conductivity. If there are local stone materials, foundations are laid out of them, as well as walls of basements, retaining walls, lined with brick.