The adjective. Types of adj. Degrees of comparison

Substitutes

Modal verbs are very common and widely used in speech and in writing. Still, there are quite a few substitutes for modal verbs. They are the phrases "be able to, have to, have got to, be to, be supposed to, be going to, used to", the adverbs "probably, maybe" and some others. Some substitutes are also very common and widely used, for example, HAVE TO instead of MUST in the meaning "strong necessity"; PROBABLY instead of MUST in the meaning "strong probability"; MAYBE instead of MAY, MIGHT, COULD in the meaning "possibility", etc.
The most important use of substitute phrases is in the cases when modal verbs can't be used. For example, the modal verb MUST in the meaning "strong necessity" doesn't have the past form, so the substitute phrase HAVE TO (necessity) is typically used instead of the modal verb MUST in the past tense, with a little change in meaning.
Maria must go to the bank today. (strong necessity)
She has to go to the bank today. (necessity)
She had to go to the bank yesterday. (necessity; realized action)
Substitute phrases are described together with the modal verbs they substitute for in the files on specific modal verbs.


13. The problem and the essence of the article in English.

If we treat article as word, we shall have to admit that English has only two articles - and a/an. But if we treat article as wordmorpheme, we shall have three articles - the, a/an, o. M.Blokh regards article as special type of grammatical auxiliary. Linguists are only agreed on function of article: article is determiner, or restricter. articles, do not form grammatical category. articles, they argue, do not belong to same lexeme, and they do not have meaning common to them: a/an has meaning of oneness, not found in the, which has demonstrative meaning. If we treat article as morpheme, then we shall have to set up grammatical category in noun, category of determination. In this opposition definite article is strong member and indefinite article is weak member. same analysis can be extended to abstract and concrete countable nouns, e.g. courage: courage vs. courage. In contrast to countables, restricted uncountables are used with two indefinite articles: a/an and zero. role of indefinite article is to individuate subamount of entity which is presented here as an aspect of entity.