The Common European Framework in its political and educational context What is the Common European Framework?

grammatical competence:
a)
inductively, by exposure to new grammatical material in authentic texts as
encountered;
b)
inductively, by incorporating new grammatical elements, categories, classes,
structures, rules, etc. in texts specially composed to demonstrate their form, fu-
nction and meaning;
c)
as b), but followed by explanations and formal exercises;
d)
by the presentation of formal paradigms, tables of forms, etc. followed by explana-
tions using an appropriate metalanguage in L2 or L1 and formal exercises;
e)
by elicitation and, where necessary, reformulation of learners’ hypotheses, etc.
6.4.7.8
If 
formal exercises are used, some or all of the following types may be employed:
a)
gap-filling
b)
sentence construction on a given model
c)
multiple choice
d)
category substitution exercises (e.g. singular/plural, present/past, active/passive, etc.)
e)
sentence merging (e.g. relativisation, adverbial and noun clauses, etc.)
f)
translation of example sentences from L1 to L2
g)
question and answer involving use of particular structures
h)
grammar-focused fluency exercises
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
the basis on which grammatical elements, categories, structures, processes and relations
are selected and ordered;
•
how their meaning is conveyed to learners;
•
the role of contrastive grammar in language teaching and learning;
•
the relative importance attached to range, fluency and accuracy in relation to the
grammatical construction of sentences;
•
the extent to which learners are to be made aware of the grammar of (a) the mother
tongue (b) the target language (c) their contrastive relations.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
152

---

6.4.7.9
Pronunciation
How should learners be expected/required to develop their ability to pronounce a
language?
a)
simply by exposure to authentic spoken utterances;
b)
by chorused imitation of i)
ii
the teacher;
ii)
i
audio-recorded native speakers;
iii)
video-recorded native speakers;
c)
by individualised language laboratory work;
d)
by reading aloud phonetically weighted textual material;
e)
by ear-training and phonetic drilling;
f)
as d) and e) but with the use of phonetically transcribed texts;
g)
by explicit phonetic training (see section 5.2.1.4);
h)
by learning orthoepic conventions (i.e. how to pronounce written forms);
i)
by some combination of the above.
6.4.7.10
Orthography
How should learners be expected/required to develop their ability to handle the writing
system of a language?
a)
by simple transfer from L1;
b)
by exposure to authentic written texts:
i)
ii
printed
ii)
i
typewritten
iii)
handwritten
c)
by memorisation of the alphabet concerned with associated phonetic values (e.g.
Roman, Cyrillic or Greek script where another is used for L1), together with diacrit-
ics and punctuation marks;
d)
by practising cursive writing (including Cyrillic or ‘Gothic’ scripts, etc.) and noting
the characteristic national handwriting conventions;
e)
by memorising word-forms (individually or by applying spelling conventions) and
punctuation conventions;
f)
by the practice of dictation.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
how grammatical structure is a) analysed, ordered and presented to learners and (b)
mastered by them.
•
how and according to what principles lexical, grammatical and pragmatic meaning in L2
is conveyed to/elicited from learners, e.g.:
•
by translation from/into L1
•
by L2 definition, explanation, etc.
•
by induction from context.
Language learning and teaching
153

---

6.4.8
Should the development of the learner’s