Thе ministry of highеr аnd sесondаry sресiаl еduсаtion of thе rерubliс of uzbеkistаn sаmаrkаnd stаtе institutе of forеign lаnguаgеs

2.3 Features of the concept of the world and man in the 14th century in a comparative aspect with modernity

Against the general background of history, the so-called "transitional epochs" are clearly visible, which T. N. Granovsky called "sad", full of "tragic beauty". Most researchers note the significance of these eras in the presence and struggle of downward and upward trends. This position in the understanding of "decisive historical stages" was formed at the dawn of Christian civilization and was reinforced by the humanistic culture of Italy in the 14th-16th centuries. It was the Italian humanists who, from a cultural point of view, saw and substantiated the qualitative difference between the two cultural streams. “Fateful minutes” were most vividly reflected in the concept of the “Italian” and “European” Renaissance, which was formed in European and Russian literature of the 19th-20th centuries. Until the post-war period, the term "Renaissance" was applied almost exclusively to the era of the XIV-XVI centuries. in the history of Europe. The formula of "Renaissance" has become truly minted: an appeal to the ancient cultural heritage, as it were, "its revival" (TSB). Thus, the Renaissance looks like a form of cultural process, an appeal to the culture of "the day before yesterday", through the head of the culture of "yesterday", with the aim of forming the culture of "today" and especially "tomorrow" .
In form, this is true, but already the Italian humanists had a more complex understanding of this expression. The term is directly related to the concept of "renovatio", which comes from the Latin "re-novo, avi, atum, are" (to renew, restore, resurrect). Hence the Italian Rinascita, Rinascimento and fr. renaissance. Renovatio, applied to a person individually or to society as a whole, meant a return to the state "before the fall", to Eden. In this sense, the concept was also used in politics (Renovatio imperii of Charlemagne, Otto the Great). In the XIII - XIV centuries. Italian society was faced with the task of getting out of a deep and comprehensive crisis and renewal, and this renewal was understood broadly.
If the church stood up only for the purification of religion without the renewal of culture, then the humanists advocated precisely the renewal of culture. According to the humanists, it was culture that had to return to its primitive state: the "fall" took place as a result of the arrival of the barbarians, who destroyed the great ancient culture (in Rus', the Mongols began to be considered such "barbarians"). Moreover, by "revival" they understood not only the renewal of culture, sciences, arts, etc., but also a change in the very essence of human nature. In Western scholarship, the Renaissance has often been understood as any cultural flourishing, as exemplified by Austrian scholar Adam Metz's book The Muslim Renaissance (1922). Humanism was understood as a fairly narrow movement of the humanities, who were fond of antiquity and rhetoric. True, back in the 19th century. the traditional concept (the Renaissance as "the discovery of the world and man"), formed on the basis of the research of J. Michelet (La decouverte du monde, la decouverte de l'homme), G. Voigt, J. Burckhardt, J. Simons, L. Geiger, F. Monnier, A. N. Veselovsky, M. S. Korelina, A. K. Dzhivelegov and others, was criticized by Em. Zhebar, G. Tode and K. Neumann. K. Neumann mentions the Carolingian and Ottonian renaissances, but considers them superficial and prefers the "Renaissance of the XII century."
In domestic literature, the development of culture was understood as a more complex process. In 1907, the Russian historian I.M. Grevs, in the preface to the Russian translation of G. Aiken's book "The History and System of the Medieval Worldview" (St. Petersburg, 1907), stated that "a single medieval worldview never existed" and in it different types of thinking, leading to unequal general constructions" (p. XXV-XXVI). The well-known Sinologist Academician Vasily Mikhailovich Alekseev (1881-1951) used the term "revival" ("then rebirth with Lu Ji") in his works. He also saw a powerful philosophical beginning in the work of Sykun Tu (837-908). Here, a fundamental universalist understanding of the history of culture was manifested: "For the history of Chinese literature, as for any other, comparative studies are essential because they lead directly to the creation of parts of the history of world literature.
Etudes of this kind are rare among sinologists and are unlikely to be made lege artis. "The comparative method gave good results. Comparing French and Chinese poetics of the 16th - 17th centuries, V. M. Alekseev makes an unambiguous conclusion that "among the poetics of Europe there is a place and Poetics of China". Arguing that different literatures and cultures are not only possible, but also necessary to be compared, V. M. Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad for they lead directly to the creation of parts of the history of world literature. Etudes of this kind are rare among sinologists and are unlikely to be made lege artis.
"The comparative method gave good results. Comparing French and Chinese poetics of the 16th - 17th centuries, V. M. Alekseev makes an unambiguous conclusion that "among the poetics of Europe there is a place and Poetics of China". Arguing that different literatures and cultures are not only possible, but also necessary to be compared, V. M. Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad for they lead directly to the creation of parts of the history of world literature. Etudes of this kind are rare among sinologists and are unlikely to be made lege artis.
"The comparative method gave good results. Comparing French and Chinese poetics of the 16th - 17th centuries, V. M. Alekseev makes an unambiguous conclusion that "among the poetics of Europe there is a place and Poetics of China". Arguing that different literatures and cultures are not only possible, but also necessary to be compared, V. M. Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad The comparative method gave good results. Comparing the French and Chinese poetics of the 16th - 17th centuries, V. M. Alekseev makes an unambiguous conclusion that "among the poetics of Europe there is a place for the poetics of China."
Arguing that different literatures and cultures are not only possible, but also necessary to compare, V. M. Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad The comparative method gave good results. Comparing the French and Chinese poetics of the 16th - 17th centuries, V. M. Alekseev makes an unambiguous conclusion that "among the poetics of Europe there is a place for the poetics of China." Arguing that different literatures and cultures are not only possible, but also necessary to compare, V. M. Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad Alekseev became in fact the first well-known researcher who tried to overcome Eurocentrism in the study of culture and start creating the history of world literature on a qualitatively new level. He really became a kind of forerunner of N.I. Konrad .
Many other researchers also tried to get away from one-sidedness in the study of specific cultures and conduct comparative studies (V. M. Zhirmunsky, E. P. Chelyshev, I. S. Braginsky, D. S. Likhachev, T. P. Nutsubidze, V. K. Chaloyan, V. S. Nalbandyan, A. A. Gardzhiev, Kh. G. Korogly, M. Yu. Gulizade, etc.). The Renaissance began, as L. M. Batkin wrote, "to dissipate in time", because, according to O. L. Weinstein, the idea of ​​a world Renaissance is incompatible "with the understanding of the Renaissance as a chronologically and geographically defined upheaval, due to certain socio-economic processes." Nevertheless, it was Academician N.I. the idea of ​​creating a worldwide, universal and integral history of literature. In his works of that time ("Three Poets", "Eight Stanzas about Autumn" by Du Fu, "On the Renaissance", "The Middle Ages in Historical Science", etc.), he raised the question of the universal nature of cultural processes, about " movement" in literature, "about the content of this movement, ... about the shocks that create the movement itself, direct it and stimulate it - where, when and how they, these shocks, went."
According to N.I. Konrad, the Renaissance processes (“Renaissance phenomena”) took place not only in the West, but also in the East, primarily in China, whose level of development was not inferior to that of the West. The term "fugu" by the Tang philosopher Han Yu seemed to him even more preferable than the Western versions (Renaissance, Renaissance). Chinese humanists revived precisely the classical, Confucian "ancient literature" (guwen), and the Renaissance model, from the point of view of N. I. Conrad, cannot be imagined without the presence of classical ancient culture and the Middle Ages. Even in the West, he believed, there is no such purity of the model. In addition, in the spirit of his time, N. I. Konrad believed that if there are formations everywhere, then everywhere there is a culture of transition from one formation to another, in this case from feudalism to capitalism, i.e.. The works of N. I. Konrad aroused unprecedented interest not only in the scientific world. As noted by S. M. Stam, for the first time after the era of the Risorgimento, when the Italian people were finally able to create their own state (1870), the problem of the Renaissance again attracted the attention of the widest circles of the public. The fashion for the "unfashionable" Renaissance was rapidly disappearing. In the 50s. 20th century there was a discussion about the bourgeois nature of the Renaissance, in the late 80s - early 90s. we have already talked about the national characteristics of individual "renaissances"
. Any study devoted to the problem of the Renaissance was doomed to be debatable. Among other things, N. I. Konrad posed a number of important general theoretical problems - about the forms and levels of the Renaissance in individual countries, about the general and particular in the Renaissance phenomenon, It was also influenced by the fact that no other historical era in the history of Europe left such a deep mark on its culture as the Renaissance. It is no coincidence that in the 19th-20th centuries there was a heated debate about where exactly the "correct" modern culture begins - from the Renaissance or the Reformation. Ranke, Gotheins, Burdach and a number of Protestant scholars, emphasizing the inextricable link between the Reformation and the Renaissance, declared that the new history of Europe begins with the Reformation. Troelch, E. Garen stood on directly opposite positions. The most strikingly opposite point of view was expressed by B. Croce, who put the Renaissance above the Reformation in terms of the culture of language, thinking, and art. By itself, the process of addressing the "origins" of civilization is quite complex and contradictory. The reasons for conversion are diverse and each civilization has its own origins. Accordingly, there is a revision of one's own history and the past becomes "unpredictable".
This period is characterized by the rejection of previous forms of culture. There is, according to M. Weber, "disenchantment" (Entzauberung), in other words, a rational rethinking of the existing irrational culture, but in the end "always adaptation to oneself" (J. Derrida). I. Christ actually accuses the former culture of lack of spirituality, when he demands to "seek the spirit" ("Blessed are the poor in spirit," that is, those who seek the spirit). For Tertullian (3rd century) "the soul, not attached to culture, is a Christian." He is the bearer of the "absurd" (lat. ad absurdum - " meant that the old culture perverts man. The Communists demanded that the former "world of violence" be destroyed. In the late 50s - early 60s. 20th century the art of postmodernism (post-industrial era) declared itself, in the development of philosophical and aesthetic programs of which many famous artists, musicians, filmmakers, philosophers and psychologists took part (R. Rauschenberg, J. Cage, S. Solovyov, K. Muratova, J. Deleuze , F. Guattari, J. Derrida, S. Grof). The modern German anthropologist A. Gehlen believes that the era of "post-history" will come in the near future. meant that the old culture perverts man.
The Communists demanded that the former "world of violence" be destroyed. In the late 50s - early 60s. 20th century the art of postmodernism (post-industrial era) declared itself, in the development of philosophical and aesthetic programs of which many famous artists, musicians, filmmakers, philosophers and psychologists took part (R. Rauschenberg, J. Cage, S. Solovyov, K. Muratova, J. Deleuze , F. Guattari, J. Derrida, S. Grof). The modern German anthropologist A. Gehlen believes that the era of "post-history" will come in the near future. many well-known artists, musicians, cinematographers, philosophers and psychologists took part in the development of philosophical and aesthetic programs (R. Rauschenberg, J. Cage, S. Solovyov, K. Muratova, J. Deleuze, F. Guattari, J. Derrida, S. . Grof). The modern German anthropologist A. Gehlen believes that the era of "post-history" will come in the near future. many well-known artists, musicians, cinematographers, philosophers and psychologists took part in the development of philosophical and aesthetic programs (R. Rauschenberg, J. Cage, S. Solovyov, K. Muratova, J. Deleuze, F. Guattari, J. Derrida, S. . Grof). The modern German anthropologist A. Gehlen believes that the era of "post-history" will come in the near future. The "Renaissance" is also characterized by an unusually wide interaction of cultures.