The peculiarities of translation of the advertising text

2.3 Translation theories.
According to the sociolinguistic approach to translation, the social context defines what is and what is not translatable and what is or what is not acceptable through selection, filtering and even censorship. According to this perspective, a translator is necessarily the product of his or her society: our own sociocultural background is present in everything we translate. This approach was developed by the School of Tel Aviv and by linguists and professors such as Annie Brisset, Even Zohar, and Guideon Toury. This theory is referred to as interpretive. Scholars Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer developed what they called the “theory of sense,” based chiefly on the experience of conference interpreting. According to this perspective, meaning must be translated, not language. Language is nothing more than a vehicle for the message and can even be an obstacle to understanding. This explains why it is always better to deverbalize (instead of transcoding) when we translate. The hermeneutic approach is mainly based on George Steiner’s research. Steiner believed of any human communication as a translation. His book After Babel shows that translation is not a science but rather an “exact art”: a true translator should be capable of becoming a writer in order to capture what the author of the original text “means to say.” Linguists such as Vinay, Darbelnet, Austin, Vegliante, or Mounin, interested in language text, structuralism, and pragmatics, also examined the process of translating. From this perspective, any translation –whether it is a marketing translation, a medical translation, a legal translation or another type of text– should be considered from the point of view of its fundamental units, that is the word, the syntagm, and the sentence. The literary approach does not consider that a translation is a linguistic endeavor but instead a literary one. Language has an “energy” revealed through words that the result of experiencing a culture. This charge is what gives it strength and ultimately, meaning: this is what the translation-writer should translate. Semiotics is the study of signs and signification. A meaning is the result of a collaboration between a sign, an object, and an interpreter. Thus, from the perspective of semiotics, translation is thought of as a way of interpreting texts in which encyclopedic content varies and each sociocultural context is unique.Reflecting the objective world during the process of activity, a man fixes the results of cognition in the word. The combination of that knowledge embodied in linguistic form, represents what is called in various concepts either as «intermediate linguistic world», or «linguistic representation of the world», or as «the linguistic model of the world», or «the linguistic picture of the world». Due to the higher extended usage we choose the latter term.The study of culture through the language — is an idea that «was in the air» in recent years: the language is the weightiest material, often self-contained information about the world and man within it. At present, phraseology continues to be the object of numerous multifaceted studies. And, as a result, in the last decade, interest has increased in considering the phraseological composition of the language from the point of view of a new science - linguoculturology, which is defined "as a branch of linguistics that arose at the junction of linguistics and cultural studies and explores the manifestations of the culture of the people that are reflected and entrenched in the language".Cultural linguistics as one of the modern areas of linguistics arose as a result of a change in the scientific paradigm at the end of the 20th century. This science is based on the key concept of "linguistic picture of the world", which is understood by linguists as a reflection of the national worldview and worldview. The linguistic picture of the world is closely connected with the problem of language and thinking. The linguistic picture of the world is a verbally expressed result of the spiritual activity of a person as a social being. It changes with the development of man himself and his ideas about the world in the course of the world historical process. In this regard, phraseology, as a fragment of the language picture of the world, expresses the material and spiritual culture of the people. A picture of the world is a representation of the world around us, based on the experience and knowledge of previous generations, as well as our own. “A person strives in some adequate way to create in himself a simple and clear picture of the world in order to, to a certain extent, try to change this world with a picture created in this way. This is done by the artist, the poet, the theorizing philosopher, and the naturalist, each in his own way. A person transfers the center of gravity of his spiritual life to this picture and its design. The concept of a picture of the world, which has long been firmly established in various sciences: philosophy, linguistics, psychology, cultural studies, epistemology, and, being used with different definitions, such as scientific, general scientific, historical, physical, still, however, does not have an exact definition. O.A. Kornilov in his monograph "Linguistic pictures of the world as derivatives of national mentalities" makes an attempt to define this concept within the framework of linguistics. It is clear that whatever definition is introduced, it cannot be considered true, since the linguistic picture of the world is not an objectively existing reality, but only a “tool” in cognition. With regard to linguistics, the picture of the world should represent a systematized plan of the language. As you know, any national language performs a number of functions: the function of communication (communicative), informative function, the function of influence (emotive) and the function of fixing and storing the entire complex of knowledge and ideas of a given language community about the world.¹⁵ The result of understanding the world by each of the types of consciousness is fixed in the matrices of the language that serves this type of consciousness. Thus, one should speak about the plurality of pictures of the world: about the scientific linguistic picture of the world, about the linguistic picture of the world of the national language, about the linguistic picture of the world of an individual. A part of the linguistic picture of the world is a naive picture of the world, which is formed as a response, mainly, to the practical needs of a person, as a necessary cognitive basis for human adaptation to the world. Pragmatic egocentrism structures activity in such a way that it is optimally lined up in the cognitive field of a person, is as convenient as possible, i.e. the naive picture of the world is notable for its considerable pragmatism. The naive picture of the world of everyday consciousness, in which the objective way of perception prevails, has an interpretive character. Language, fixing the collective stereotypical and standard representations, objectifies the interpretive activity of human consciousness and makes it accessible for study. And the national particularity of the linguistic picture of the world and linguistic behavior can be explained by the specifics of the culture of the people, but also by the structural features of the language . The national specificity of the linguistic picture of the world and linguistic behavior is most clearly reflected in the phraseology of any language. In linguistics, phraseology is considered as "a set of stable combinations of words similar to words in their reproducibility as ready-made and integral units" , and the phraseological picture of the world is understood as a part of the linguistic picture of the world, described by means of phraseology, in which "each phraseological phrase is element of a strict system and performs certain functions in describing the reality of the surrounding reality ". Thus, the phraseological picture of the world is understood as a universal way of classifying phraseological units based on the linguistic and extralinguistic features of the units. The phraseological picture of the world is part of the linguistic picture of the world, and the picture of the world described by means of vocabulary and phraseology is the “lower tiers” of the linguistic picture of the world, on which the description of objective reality is based with all the connections and relationships in the composition of the statement. The phraseological system of a language is understood as “a form of reflection in the minds of native speakers of objective reality, systemic relations of the world of realities» . There are two approaches to the analysis of phraseological units: epistemological (extralinguistic factors involved in the formation of the integral meaning of phraseological units) and linguistic (linguistic mechanisms of phrase formation), as well as using the synchronic and diachronic principles of research. The phraseological picture of the world is described, as a rule, in three aspects: logical, philosophical and axiological. The phraseological picture of the world is a "naive" picture of the world, because it reflects knowledge about the world at the level of everyday consciousness. Situations enshrined in sustainable turnovers become stereotypes of human behavior, due to the national worldview. The core of this picture of the world is made up of units of a more ancient origin, most often with a lost, blurred (phraseological fusion) or transparent (phraseological unity) internal form. It can be said that the phraseological picture of the world is the most stable part of the linguistic picture of the world, since it is replenished insignificantly in the process of the development of society, and the process of formation of phraseological units is quite long.¹⁶ A picture of the world is a representation of the world around us, based on the experience and knowledge of previous generations, as well as our own. “A person strives in some adequate way to create in himself a simple and clear picture of the world in order to, to a certain extent, try to change this world with a picture created in this way. This is done by the artist, the poet, the theorizing philosopher, and the naturalist, each in his own way. A person transfers the center of gravity of his spiritual life to this picture and its design.. The development of a person and the change in his ideas about the world changes the language pattern of the world, which is most closely connected with the problem of language and thinking. “Linguistic picture of the world is a verbally expressed result of the spiritual contribution of a person as a social being” . In connection with the eᴛᴎm phraseology, from the position of the linguistic picture of the world element, it reflects the features of the material and spiritual culture of the people. Researchers of LP of the world have repeatedly noted the national uniqueness of phraseological units, as well as the display in them of the elements of the national character of any people. Differentiation of phraseological units among different peoples is determined by a large number of components. Among them are religion, history, customs and tradition, natural conditions ᴎ valuable systems of a certain national community, and also the way of life and psychology of people. For example, for a Russian person, bread is an obligatory product, so in Russia there is a huge variety of bakery products. This national identity in food did not go unnoticed in the phraseology: “Bread is the head of everything; not a horse, but bread; bread and life – ᴎ live without money”. Also in the speech, the expressions “do not feed bread”, “on your own bread”, “daily bread”, “survive from bread to water”, “bread and salt” are actively used. Or, for example, "Christmas trees are green!" - an exclamation that conveys surprise or annoyance. This expression appeared thanks to prerevolutionary tavern signs, which depicted spruce branches. “They were crowned around the spruce” is a popular joking expression with a touch of irony. "About the unmarried couple" - reflects the ridicule by Christians of the pagan wedding ceremony. You can often find expressions borrowed from folk tales and fables. For example, the idiom “at the pike’s command” is something that happens as if by magic, of course” . Phraseological units contain information about the system of customs, tradition, laws and ordinary imagination about the world, developed by society and transmitted from generations to generations. All these facts allow scientists to characterize phraseological units as a means of verbalization of certain concepts. Such concepts as: “soul”, “laziness”, “labor”, “life” are the most developed in the Russian language and Russian culture. The Russian concept "soul" occupies a dominant place in terms of the number of identified units. Statistical relationships that make up the concept are expressed in synonymous pairs: soul-emotion (soul hurts), soul-character (soulful person), soul-life (laying the soul). Such metaphors as: the soul hurts, lie like a stone on the soul, pour out the soul, reflect various ideas about the soul to the depths of the soul. From this point of view, the figurative component of the concept “soul” is not one-dimensional: the soul is associated with the idea of some abstract concept, some living substance that is inside a person and provides him with life. The soul (like a person) is mortal: to give the soul to God, it can get tired - the fatigue of the soul, get sick - the soul hurts, etc. From the point of view of ethics, the soul is the bearer of a certain ethical ideal: to stain the soul; though the purse is empty, but the soul is pure. The soul is localized, hence the idiom soul is out of place; the soul - a solid object - scratches the soul; a surface similar to earth - a stone lay on the soul, a trace in the soul; the soul is like a book - to read in the soul; the soul is like bread, therefore it becomes stale - stale in soul; the soul is like a flower - to bloom with the soul; soul - a musical instrument - the strings of the soul. The concept of "life" is culturally significant for the Russian language picture of the world. Multilingual relations are expressed in synonymous pairs: life-death (end of life), life-fate (blow of fate, fight fate, argue with fate); symbols (heads, belly, bread, metaphors that reflect the idea of the connection between life and fate (life is connected with fate by a mysterious thread that the goddess of fate can cut and life will end). So, the phraseological unit to beat the bucks was formed on the basis of the handicraft production of the bucks - wooden blanks for spoons. It was believed among the people that the manufacture of laze (baklush) was an easy task that did not require effort. This idea entered the consciousness of a Russian person and became fixed as a stereotype. Belief in a miracle, in the fulfillment of a wish without much effort and, as a result, the passivity of character reflect the main features of the Russian mentality and, from our point of view, constitute the following value judgments: laziness is not bad, not good, because there is always someone who will do it for you. Phraseological units quite often flicker in our everyday speech.¹⁷ Most often, we do not notice their use in speech. Phraseological units have a unique feature - they are able to produce separate self-consistent statements, while replacing the whole sentence. In addition to being informative, phraseological units have another important quality - the ability to convey their attitude to the described phenomenon. This quality is considered one of the main features of phraseological units. It’s known that person becomes person only when he acquires language and culture of his nation. All refinements of nation’s culture reflect in language, which is specific and unique. Huge part of information about the World comes to person through linguistic channel that’s why person lives rather in the world of concepts, created by him for intellectual, spiritual and social needs, than in the world of objects and things; enormous information comes to him through a word and human’s success in society depends on that how good he possessed the language, and not so much on possession of cultural speech, but rather on his abilities to understand secrets of language. Philosophers even say that understanding thoroughly a word which names any object or event, it’s possible to say that it become easier to capture the real world.One of the most valuable source of the information about the culture and mentality of the nation are phraseological units, metaphors, symbols and others, because they keep the myths, legends and traditions of the target culture. Well-known Russian linguist B.A.Larin wrote: “Phraseological units always indirectly reflect the nation’s outlook, social system, and ideology of its epoch”. The same can be said about metaphors, symbols and others.In our work very valuable thought is asserted, that the mystery of language is one of the biggest mysteries of human being; if it won’t be examined enormous knowledge of the past would be lost.¹⁸ Our aim is to help to see the cultural background which consists of language units and which allows to correlate superficial language structures with their deep essence.Every language creates the World in its own way also it has its way of conceptualization. Thereby linguists decided that every language has unique picture of the World and language speaker needs to arrange utterances in equivalence with its picture. Here we can observe the specific perception of the world fixed in language.Language is an important method of knowledge formation and existence about the World. Reflecting the objective world in the process of activity, in word people fix the results of cognition, knowledge. The sum of these knowledges fixed in language represents itself what we call “language intervening world”, “language model of the world», or at last “language world picture”. According to wide usage we mostly choose the last term.For native speaker the mother tongue represents a form of the conceptualization of the world, characteristic for the given culture. The system of values, created within the culture, has its reflection in the language. Moreover, according to W. von Humboldt, each language reflects some definite worldview. Consequently ‘to the extent perception and activities of a person depend on his views’; person’s attitude towards “objects” is completely defined by the language. The same can be said about the famous statement of H. G. Gadamer ‘the tradition in which we live’, as it comes from the correspondence of Gadamer with V. Malakhov, implies, first of all ‘linguistic tradition’. Namely V. Malakhov comments the thesis in the following way: ‘Our reasoning and superstitions are determined by the language we think at. That means that, firstly, our thoughts – at pre-predication level – are defined by the inner structures of the native language. Secondly, our reasoning – ‘the experience of reasoning’ is determined by ‘the experience of the language’ – by the history of the culture created in that language’. Similarly, according to the so called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language and mode of thinking are closely interconnected. As ‘there are no symbols before the speaking man, though the symbol itself has much deeper roots; and the language is the instrument where the universe, desires, imagination find their expression; we inevitably need a word to reproduce the world and make it sacred’, the cultural values, ideals, guidelines, the opinion of a man about the universe and its role in this universe find their realization in the language: the language reflects the fundamental values of the given culture and at the same time forms them. Thus, for the native speaker the mother language represents a form for the conceptualization of the world, characteristic for that given culture.For understanding this aspect of the human culture, some lexical unites represent ‘Priceless clues’as A. Wierzbicka puts it. ‘Key words –the words which are extremely important and meaningful for the given culture’. From this we may conclude that the accumulated experience somehow is encoded in the language. For example, C. Geertz gives to the notion of ‘culture’ the following definition ‘historically transferred model of notions, put in symbols, as a system of inherited conceptions, that are expressed by means of symbols, through which people communicate with each other and based on which their knowledge about life and their attitudes are formed.The concept of World picture (including language) basis on the studies of person’s view of the World. If the world is the interaction between man and environment, world picture is a result of the processed information about the person and environment. Thus, the representatives of cognate linguistics fairly asserted that our conceptual system, reflected in the form of language picture of the world, depends on physical and cultural experience and ingenuously connected with it.The phenomena and external world subjects are presented in human consciousness in the form of an internal image. In opinion of A.N. Leontiev, there is a special “fifth quasi world” which represents to people surrounding reality: it is a “semantic field”, system of meanings. At that time, world picture is a system of forms.M. Haidegger wrote, that hearing word “picture” first of all we think about imagery of something, “Essentially understood world picture is not the picture representing the world, but the world understood as picture”. There are difficulties between real world reflection and language world picture as fixation of that reflexion. World’s picture can be represented with the help of spatial (up-down, left-right, east-west, near-far), temporal (day-night, summer-winter), quantitative, ethical and other characteristics. Language, traditions, nature and landscape, upbringing, teaching and other social factors also influence in its formation.Language world picture doesn’t comparable with other special world pictures (chemical, physical and ext.), it precedes them all and forms them, because person can understand surrounded world and himself grace to language, which fixes social- historical experience of common human beings and national. The last one defines the specifics of the language in all its levels.¹⁹ Under specifics of language in consciousness of its speakers defined language world picture, though which prism person perceive the world.J.D. Apersyan underlined prescientific character of language world picture, calling itnaïve. Language world picture as though supplements the objective knowledges about reality, often distorting them (words as atom, dot, light, heat and ext.). Studying semantics of these words, we can reveal the specificity of cognate models, which determines the originality of naïve world picture. As cognition of the world is not free from mistakes and delusions, its conceptual world picture always changing, “drawing again”, whereas language world picture keeps for long the tracks of these mistakes and delusions.In the opinion of V.B.Kasaevich, world picture, encoded by the means of semantics, by the time can find itself remained, relict, which serves as old materials for new semantics creation. In other words, there are divergences between archaic both semantic system of language and that actual mental model which is valid for the given language collective and is shown in texts generated by it, and also in laws of its behaviour.Language world picture forms the type of persons treat to the world (nature, animals, to him as the element of the world). It sets the norms of people behavior in the world and defines their relations to the world. Every natural language reflects the defined way of perception and organization (conceptualization) of the world. Expressed their senses take shape of some united system of visions, like collective philosophy, which binds as obligatory to the whole bearers of the language.Hereby, the role of the language is not only sending messages, but first of all in internal organization of that which is liable to send. It arises some kind of “space of meanings” (in Leontievs’ terminology), that is knowledges about the world fixed in language, where certainly enters the national-cultural experience of the concrete language community. It forms the world of speakers who spoke the given language; there is language world picture as totality of knowledge about the world, imprinted in vocabulary, phraseology, grammar.Interest to the language picture of the world is also can be found in works of W. Humboldt, who wrote that “different languages serve for nation as organs of their original thinking and perception Language and picture of the world” and others increased interest to that problem is connected with the cognate researches of the last years, in the networks of which attempts to bind together the theory of Gestalts with the theory of Frames. Theory of the Gestalt concerning language displays in several aspects. Thus, on the superficial language level the same Gestalt can be realized in different meanings, and only special survey can place their unity. J.Lacoff have shown war and argument are described by the same terms, that is, equally thought, contact with the same gestalt.So, a Gestalt the essence the universal representations belonging to depths of human mentality in general and as whole laying out of categorical frameworks of a natural language, i.e. substantial sizes transcendental: a Gestalt lays directly behind a side stated and is organic with it are connected. Reconstructed on the basis of real language data, a Gestalt becomes real substantial sizes of the nearest transcendental.²⁰Humboldt’s idea about “language world outlook has received development in contemporary neogumboltism. Really, each people in own way dismember variety of the world, in own way name these fragments of the world. Originality of the “constructing” world picture determines by individual, group and national (ethnic) verbal and nonverbal experience. National originality of language world picture is examined by neogumbalts not as the result of prolonged historical development, but as given primordial quality of languages. They think people create their unique world, different from that which surrounds them. World picture of the speaker, really, considerable differs from the objective characteristics, objects, happenings description, because it is a “subjective image of objective world”. However language itself doesn’t create that subjective world picture.World picture, which can be named knowledge about the world, lies on the basis of individual and social consciousness. Language fulfils requirements of informative process. Conceptual pictures of the world at different people can be various, for example at representatives of different epoch, different social, age groups, different areas of scientific knowledge etc. People speaking in different languages, can have under certain conditions close conceptual pictures of the world, and the people speaking in one language, - different. Hence, in a conceptual picture of the world co-operates universal, national and personal.Picture world is not a simple set of “photos” of subjects, processes, properties etc. It includes not only the reflected objects, but also a position of the reflecting subject, its relation to these objects, at that moment position of the subject is the same reality as same objects. Moreover, as reflexion of the world by the person is not active, and passive, the relation to objects not only generated by these objects, but also is capable for changing them (through activity). From here follows that the system of a national language takes part in designing language picture of the world. Language picture of the world in the whole and main coincides with logic reflexion of the world in consciousness of people. But thus saves the separate items in language world picture to which we include phraseology; every language has its own phraseologies.Phraseologies play an important role in formation of the language world picture. They are “mirrors of the nation’s life”. The meanings of phraseologies are closely connected with the background knowledges of the speaker, with his life experience, with historical-cultural traditions of his nation. Phraseological units attribute signs to objects which associate with a world picture, mean the whole descriptive situation (text), estimate it, and express the relation to it. By their semantics phraseological units are directed to the person’s activity and behavior.Sense of whole lines of basic words and phraseological units were formed on the basis of anthropocentric understanding of the world, like a column head, a bottle neck, a table leg, to appropriate, a finger about a finger not to strike, continually, etc. Such nominative units create a cultural-national picture of the world in which the life and customs, customs and behavior of people, their relation to the world and to each other are reflected.The language picture of the world is created by different paints, the brightest, from our point of view, is mythologemy, is figurative-metaphoric words, connotative words, etc. Our outlook partially is in captivity of language picture of the world. Each concrete language comprises national, original system which defines outlook of bearers of the given language and forms their picture of the world.