The State and Its People Richard Ekins
parture is that one values the people that will be sundered, who share a history
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parture is that one values the people that will be sundered, who share a history of doing great deeds together and stand ready to do more. 59 It is a problem for national unity, by definition, and for self-government, by extension, if or when some of one’s compatriots come to think of their political community to be only part of the whole. There is good reason then for rulers and ruled alike in Britain, insofar as they love their country and would be grieved by its dissolution, to en- courage fellow feeling across the kingdom, encouraging the British to think of themselves as such (as well as English, Scottish, Welsh or Irish), to recognize that they are a nation-state, a single people. Articulating social solidarity as a prin- ciple of constitutionalism, as Barber almost does, would help make the point. V Solidarity also warrants caution about supra-national rule. Taking the European Parliament as his example, Barber argues that “[o]n rare occasions, democratic institutions are created above the state, and these supra-national bodies may make decisions that bind the state in the international sphere and, sometimes, directly alter the domestic legal position of people within those states.” 60 The sovereign state is capable of terminating the European Parliament’s continuing role within its domestic order, Barber maintains, but in the meantime that Parliament is the forum for a democratic unit that encompasses many states. Earlier in the book, however, Barber rightly notes that the European Parliament struggles to engage voters, concluding that for now “it is through states—rather than directly—that peoples engage in the international realm.” 61 I agree that the state is the means by which a people may participate effectively in the inter- national realm, but Barber’s analysis points to the risk that the state may abdicate sovereignty, sacrificing its people’s capacity for final decision-making and helping create a state without a people. 59 Ernst Renan, “What is a Nation?,” in Modern Political Doctrines, ed. Alfred Zimmern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939), 203, quoted in Barber, Constitutional State, 138; see also Lord Sumption, “The Disunited Kingdom: England, Ireland and Scotland,” a lecture to the Denning Society at Lincoln’s Inn, 5 November 2013, 2-3, 15. 60 Barber, Principles of Constitutionalism, 213. 61 Ibid. 35. 62 Richard Ekins Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 For Barber, the state is the sovereign state, with the non-sovereign state not properly speaking a state at all. If the nation-state is a free people taking institu- tional form, as I argue, then the central importance of sovereignty is readily explained. However, Barber may be too quick in setting aside the non-sovereign state, which is, I say, an intelligible form of social order and one that may some- times be reasonable. The non-sovereign state is the institutional form taken by a political community in which authority is exercised and life is lived together but which is not wholly free to rule itself. It may be subject to the rule of another, perhaps an imperial authority, which rule may be limited and reasonable. Or it may be subject to partial, episodic interference with its decision-making by other states, or international institutions, which it proves powerless to resist. If a state’s sovereignty is compromised by military occupation, or complete financial ruin and dependence, foreign rule may be far-reaching and objectionable. However, in some cases, even such a far-reaching interference in state sovereignty may be reasonable, restoring sovereign statehood in due course under justifiable condi- tions, as for example in post-war Germany and Japan. Non-sovereign statehood need not be an evil. Consider the medieval state and its relationship to the church, where the authority of the latter tempered the au- thority of the former. One might reasonably deny that the medieval state was a sovereign state, but its wide responsibility for the common good of a distinct people would intelligibly make it nonetheless a state. (There are reasons to think that the medieval church was itself a state, 62 whether sovereign or not, but rea- sons to think the opposite, insofar as the church disavowed, and did not exercise, general responsibility for the temporal common good.) Consider again the self- governing dominions within the British empire, where imperial authority was constitutionally limited to protect the interest of the empire as a whole, in trade or foreign policy, or to intervene if self-government misfired. It would be wrong to deny that medieval England or the dominions formed states in a real sense or to insist that the only true state was Christendom or the British empire. It would be better to conclude that Christendom was not a state precisely because it did not have the capacity to rule itself as one, for the institutional form that united its members, the church, did not assert such thorough-going political agency. It is not obvious that either medieval England or the dominions would have been better governed, more solicitous of the common good, had they (immediately) shrugged off the authority of church or empire. Much turns on the conditions under which state sovereignty is asserted. Subjection to the authority of another is reasonable insofar as one has war- ranted confidence that authority will be exercised for common good. The same holds for non-sovereign states. Sovereignty frees the state to act for the common good as it sees fit, free from control by others who may well be disposed to act for other (different) ends. Sovereign states enjoy legal equality. They are subject to international legal obligations, including obligations that recognize the sover- eignty of other states, including their entitlement to be free from military 62 F. W. Maitland, Roman Canon Law in the Law of England (London: Methuen, 1898), 100- 101. 63 The State and Its People Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 aggression. But they are of course also capable of creating new obligations by entering into treaties. Barber notes that the sovereign state is the means by which a people participates in international relations, including by committing itself to treaties. 63 Limiting one’s freedom of action, by voluntarily undertaking legal obligations, Barber says, is an exercise of sovereignty rather than its abdication. 64 I agree, but caution that there is a standing risk that some treaties create supra- national institutions that may be charged with creating and applying further legal norms or adjudicating treaty obligations, institutions that may more or less openly depart from the terms the signatory states agreed. 65 Like Barber, I take it be true and important that sovereign states enjoy the capacity to break their treaties and that domestic constitutional law and practice preserves the state’s freedom to act in this way. 66 It will often be dishonorable or imprudent for a state to break its treaty obligations, but this is for the state itself to judge in the circumstances at hand. The freedom of sovereign states in this re- spect is not somehow a failure of institution building, as if the ideal would be for states to be compelled by other states or a global authority to adhere to the terms of their treaties. By contrast, there is a case for collective enforcement of norms forbidding non-aggression or genocide, for example, for a people’s self- government is no license for attacking its neighbors or committing mass murder. Here one finds sovereignty’s limits. But this is not the case with ordinary treaty obligations, where a people’s freedom to enter agreements with other peoples is valuable but would be dangerous if the people could not walk away, compensat- ing injured states equitably if justice so requires. The sovereign state’s freedom to exit or breach treaty obligations is an adjunct to self-government and prevents its alienation by acts (or even a single act) of treaty-making. It follows that the state should guard its sovereignty jealously and take pains to avoid alienating powers of government, losing control of the levers by which it may secure the common good, which would risk exposing its people to foreign domination. If or when a state surrenders its sovereignty, transferring authority to rule to other states or to supranational institutions, it will invite its people’s alienation from the joint project that is self-government. One sees this in European integration, especially in the context of financially dependent members of the Eurozone, which remain states but which more or less lack the capacity to secure their common good, for example by taking the measures otherwise avail- able to a sovereign state to address mass unemployment. To be clear, the member states in question remain states. They have the means at their disposal to assert sovereignty in extremis, but their treaty commitments, taken together with rela- tive power balances and changes in economic circumstances, constitute a surren- der of sovereignty. And it is clear to their peoples that they lack authority to act 63 Barber, Principles of Constitutionalism, 40. 64 Ibid. 65 John Finnis, “Judicial Lawmaking and the ‘Living’ Instrumentalization of the ECHR,” in Lord Sumption and the Limits of the Law, ed. N.W. Barber, Richard Ekins, and Paul Yowell (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2016), 73. 66 Barber, Principles of Constitutionalism, 41; Richard Ekins, Protecting the Constitution (London: Policy Exchange, 2019), 23. 64 Richard Ekins Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 for the common good. Control over fundamental questions about economic management and related social policy lie beyond the reach of national institu- tions. It is no answer to say that sovereignty has been pooled, for the people of, say, Greece, lack effective engagement with the institutions that decide monetary policy precisely because their state has no leverage, has no power to compel at- tention to their plight. The disaffected citizen of an EU (especially Eurozone) member state may rea- sonably ask for whose common good European institutions act. The vast dis- tance between the European ruling elite and unemployed Greeks, Spaniards or Italians, for example, makes it very difficult for the latter to understand them- selves to be engaged in a common project with the former. They have no reason for confidence that the (monetary) authority to which they are subject is exer- cised for their good. By surrendering control over currency, weaker member states have abandoned their capacity to act for their people’s good. Even relative- ly strong member states have abandoned a critical lever and are to some extent vulnerable to government that is not in their interests. The difference is that the latter are better placed to influence, threaten or simply engage the relevant au- thority, forcing it to act for their interests or at least to take them into account. The problem is not just the Euro. The same argument holds in relation to the migration crisis. 67 Authority has been shifted from nation-states to supra- national institutions. Alienation from self-government is a predictable conse- quence of this development, as is state incapacity to secure the common good. The trade-off, of course, is that European institutions may prove more capable and, in relation to some member states, more conscientious. Making the trade is to abdicate self-government in the hope that foreign (external) rule will prove to be better. True, the treaties of the EU make provision for citizens of member states also to be citizens of the EU, but it does not follow that European govern- ment is self-government. European “citizenship” is passive and apolitical. It enti- tles the “citizen” to certain rights, but does not implicate her in collective action. European citizens are free to move to different member states, but not to partici- pate in domestic political life, making an apolitical, but economically active agent the paradigm of the European citizen. While he or she is entitled to par- ticipate in European elections, this is not a forum for real, Europe-wide political action. The European Parliament is not a lively legislature and is not the seat of government. The European project aims to strip politics out of government; it succeeds in hollowing out national democracy, spurring the demise of mass pol- itical party membership. 68 The EU is a partial state, strong enough to disable member states but not to replace them. Its intellectual foundation is skepticism about state sovereignty and the democratic self-government of peoples. The institutional arrangements that characterize the European project aim to substitute impersonal rule for 67 On which see Ivan Kraztev, After Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017). 68 Peter Mair, Ruling the Void: The Hollowing of Western Democracy (London: Verso, 2013), 99-142. 65 The State and Its People Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 responsible government. The result is a revival of an imperial form of govern- ment—but without an emperor or even a hegemon, aware of its responsibility for the common good of all. The project is incomplete but the European treaties and the institutional arrangements to which they give rise are clearly strong enough to disable member states from many forms of action and to alienate their peoples from participation in their own government. This is a partial state with- out a people, or a state which tends to dissolve the peoples of the member states into a depoliticized mass. Barber argues that the European Union’s sovereignty claims fall short of statehood because European law is obeyed only because member states require as much. 69 It is true and important that European law remains a creature of treaty commitments, which member states can terminate or breach. But to the extent that this web of commitments, by design, makes this option impossible to realize, sovereignty has been surrendered. Again, Barber argues that the European Union is not yet a state, despite its pretensions. 70 The conclusion might be true, but it does not follow that member states remain sovereign states. The European project is clearly, and openly, a state-building project, with the trappings of statehood—citizenship, a parlia- ment, an anthem—deployed both to advance the project and to address the (jus- tified) charge that it flouts democratic principle. 71 The trappings are attempts to awaken, or summon, a demos, but as Barber notes the attempts fail. There is no European public capable of deliberating about a complex common good or act- ing jointly for it by way of institutions which that public recognizes to be speak- ing for them jointly in exercising responsible rule. The absence of a people follows from the fact that the peoples of Europe have no intention to act jointly as a people, no mutual assurance that they and their institutions have the same commonwealth in mind. The partial state in which they find their states to be ever more entangled was created by sovereign states, making treaties that were plausibly thought to be worth entering. Sovereignty carries with it the capacity to break free of this web of entanglements, but sovereignty may first have to be rebuilt. VI In reflecting on the state as a type of institutional order, on its capacity to make it possible for a people to live well, Barber reveals much that is true about consti- tutional government. His account would be strengthened, I have argued, if it centered more closely on the social reality of the good state, in which a people jointly intends to secure its common good by way of its own institutions. Not every good state is a democratic state, but it is true and important that authority should be shared widely and that the good state will aim to form its people into 69 Barber, Principles of Constitutionalism, 29. 70 Ibid., 12; see also Barber, Constitutional State, chapter 10. 71 Elsewhere I have argued that democratic reform in the EU is “a kind of constitutional cargo cult”: Richard Ekins, “Restoring Parliamentary Democracy,” Cardozo Law Review 39 (2018): 1003. 66 Richard Ekins Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 a group capable of self-government. For self-government to be possible, rulers and ruled must be united in action, with the latter having some assurance that the former have their good in mind and will rule responsibly. Social solidarity grounds this joint action and the good state will be a nation-state, in which members of the state understand one another to form a single people, which shares a common good. When states neglect these foundations—exercising sov- ereignty to establish supranational institutions, undermining the significance of state membership, making less and less turn on democratic politics at home, and abrogating their continuing freedom to exit treaty arrangements—they under- mine responsible government and self-government, unmooring the state from its people. 67 The State and Its People Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ajj/article/66/1/49/6323585 by guest on 21 May 2023 Download 202.96 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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