Theoretical models of culture shock and adaptation in international students in higher education

Contemporary perspectives on intercultural contact
The study of ‘culture shock’ has come to draw more from social psychology and education than
medicine. ‘Culture learning’ and ‘stress and coping’ models have become well established
(Furnham and Bochner 1986), and ‘social identification’ theories have become more prominent.
These three contemporary theories are more comprehensive, considering the different components
of response – affect, behaviour and cognition (ABC) – when people are exposed to a new culture.
Table 2 summarises their differences in theoretical origin, conceptual structure, factors that affect
adjustment and implications for intervention. People in cultural transit are seen as proactively
responding to and resolving problems stemming from change, rather than being passive victims
of trauma stemming from a noxious event. The notion of ‘culture shock’ has been transformed
into contact-induced stress accompanied by skill deficits that can be managed and ameliorated,
and terms such as ‘adaptation’ and ‘acculturation’ have been increasingly used instead.
Culture learning
Furnham and Bochner (1986) strongly advocated the social skills/culture learning model, for its
theoretical robustness and because it also led to training methods. This approach developed into
contemporary ‘culture learning’ theory. It has its origin in social psychology, focusing primarily
on behavioural aspects of intercultural contact and regarding social interaction as a skilled and
mutually organised performance (Argyle 1969). ‘Shock’ is understood as the stimulus for acqui-
sition of culture-specific skills that are required to engage in new social interactions. The
process of adaptation is influenced by a number of variables, including: general knowledge
about a new culture (Ward and Searle 1991); length of residence in the host culture (Ward et al.
1998); language or communication competence (Furnham 1993); quantity and quality of contact
with host nationals (Bochner 1982); friendship networks (Bochner, McLeod, and Lin 1977);
previous experience abroad (Klineberg and Hull 1979); cultural distance (Ward and Kennedy
1993a, b); cultural identity (Ward and Searle 1991); acculturation modes (Ward and Kennedy
1994); temporary versus permanent residence in a new country (Ward and Kennedy 1993c); and
cross-cultural training (Deshpande and Viswesvaran 1992). This model leads to practical
guidelines for intervention in preparation, orientation and (especially) behavioural social skills
training.