Theoretical models of culture shock and adaptation in international students in higher education

Acculturation and student sojourners
As was described above, the contemporary theories are particularly concerned with adaptation
and adjustment. They are situated within a broader framework of acculturation theory (Ward,
Bochner, and Furnham 2001). First, the process of acculturation is described, and then consider-
ation is given to how it applies to student sojourners.
Acculturation model
Acculturation refers to the process of intercultural adaptation, though the definition of intercul-
tural adaptation is controversial (e.g. Mumford 1998). However, Ward and his colleagues finally
proposed that intercultural adaptation can be broadly divided into two categories: psychological,
mainly situated in a stress and coping framework, and sociocultural adaptation, situated
within the culture learning framework (Searle and Ward 1990; Ward and Kennedy 1992). The
acculturation model presented in Figure 1 (adapted from Ward, Bochner, and Furnham 2001)

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links the stress and coping perspective with the culture learning perspective, and distinguishes
psychological, sociocultural and cognitive outcomes while emphasising their interaction. This is
why we have adapted Ward, Bochner and Furnham’s model to include arrows from cognition in
the responses domain to both ‘psychological’ and ‘sociocultural’ in the outcome box.
Figure 1.
The acculturation process (adapted from Ward, Bochner and Furnham 2001).
This interactive and dynamic model sees cross-cultural transition as a significant life event
that involves adaptive change. The major task facing individuals in cultural transition is the devel-
opment of stress-coping strategies and culturally relevant social skills. This will involve
responses in affect, behaviour and cognition for both stress-management and social skill acquisi-
tion, and should result in psychological adjustment and sociocultural adaptation. The model
incorporates a wide range of micro and macro level variables, with implications for future
research. At the micro-level, characteristics of both person and situation may be important. Indi-
vidual variables such as personality, language competence and cultural identity, and situational
factors such as length of cultural contact, cultural distance and social support are all relevant. At
the macro-level, society of origin and society of settlement are also important, and social,
political, economic and cultural factors are included.
This model is quite efficient in explaining the acculturation process. However, the relation-
ship between psychological adjustment and sociocultural adaptation is still not very clear. For

 
 
 

 


 



 

  


 


 



 

  


 
    
 


 

 
 
 

 
  

  
   
  









 
    
  



   
        
   
 
  

 

 

    
  

  
   


  
        
 

 
        
 

    

  
   

 


    

   
  

  
    

     
Figure 1.
The acculturation process (adapted from Ward, Bochner and Furnham 2001).

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 Y. Zhou et al.
example, how does this model explain a student who fits successfully into a different system of
teaching and learning, but still feels bad about the transition? Furthermore, within Ward, Bochner
and Furnham’s model the cognitive aspects of acculturation seem not well integrated with the
whole acculturation process. Finally, the relationship between students’ pedagogical adaptation
and their psychological and sociocultural adaptation requires further clarification.