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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Learning as a process. Relationship with science
1.1 Learning process
1.2 Classification of teaching methods
2. Application of teaching methods in different age groups
2.1 Primary and secondary school age
2.2 Senior school age
Conclusion
Bibliographic list

INTRODUCTION

Modern pedagogy as a science is in the process of constant development: as the role of a person in culture, the economy and all spheres of social relations changes, the goals set by education change, pedagogical methods improve, new ideas appear, old ones come to life, suddenly becoming relevant. At the same time, the actual education system has a sufficient inertia to innovations, which, on the one hand, is a certain deterrent to the development of the theory of pedagogy, on the other hand, has a positive effect, since such inertia is also system-preserving. In modern Russia, in the conditions of relative liberalization of the education system, various pedagogical technologies, concepts and teaching methods have gained the opportunity to develop and put into practice [5, p.

The needs of society and the school, the logic of the development of the problem, the current level of psychology and pedagogy have necessitated a systematic study of the problem of teaching methods in order to get closer to its objective solution, to ensure the role of methods in achieving the whole variety of learning goals, to justify a monistic approach to solving the problem, taking into account various aspects of methods learning already identified in the literature. Overcoming the noted difficulties and achieving the goals of studying the problem is possible only at the didactic level, that is, at the level of considering the features and processes inherent in any education, regardless of the specifics of its subject content.
The aim of the work is a comprehensive analysis of the theory of teaching methods and their use in the educational process. To achieve the goal of the work, we will consider the characteristics inherent in any training, regardless of the specifics of its subject content. This goal of the work determines the following tasks:
1) study and analyze the terminological base of the study;
2) to characterize the teaching methods;
3) analyze the classification of teaching methods.
Thus, the object of this course work are teaching methods. The subject is the learning process.
Analysis of the discussions about teaching methods that began in 1956-1958. and continuing to the present day, reveals two subjects of discussion. Some scientists consider the very nomenclature of methods, while offering new ones; others, accepting the traditional nomenclature (story, conversation, excursion, etc.), classify it on other grounds [9, p. 8-9].
learning school learning activities
1. LEARNING AS A PROCESS. RELATION WITH SCIENCE

“Pedagogy” is a word of Greek origin, literally it is translated as “child-bearing”, “child-bearing” or the art of education. In Russia, this word appeared along with the pedagogical, historical and philosophical heritage of ancient civilization and the pedagogical values ​​of Byzantium and other countries [3, p. 8].

Pedagogy is the science of the purposeful process of transferring human experience and preparing the younger generation for life and work [24, p. 4].
The subject of pedagogy is education as an integral pedagogical process. In this case, pedagogy is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of teacher education.
As an object, pedagogy considers not an individual person, his psyche (this is an object of psychology), but a system of educational and pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. We can say that the object of pedagogy is the reality that determines the development of man in the process of society. These phenomena are called education. This is the subject of pedagogy [22, p. 10].

1. 
   Learning process
   

The learning process is a purposeful interaction between a teacher and students, during which the tasks of educating students are solved [2, p. 16].

It is designed to perform three functions - educational, educational and developing.
The educational function involves the assimilation of scientific knowledge, the formation of special knowledge and skills. Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, a generalized picture of the world.
Simultaneously with the educational function, the learning process also implements the educational function. At the same time, the trainees form a worldview; moral, labor, aesthetic, ethical ideas and views; beliefs; ways of appropriate behavior and activities in society; system of ideals and values, attitudes towards the individual. The educative nature of education is a clearly manifested pattern that operates immutably in any era and in any conditions. The educational function organically follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students.
Just as the educative function, the developing nature of learning objectively follows from the very nature of this social process. Properly delivered education always develops, however, the developmental function is carried out more effectively with a special focus on the interaction of teachers and students for the comprehensive development of the individual. This special focus of education on the development of the student's personality was enshrined in the term "developmental education" [28, p. 28].
The learning process has a clear structure. Its leading element is the goal. In addition to the general and main goal - to transfer to children a body of knowledge, skills and abilities, to develop the mental strength of students - the teacher constantly sets himself private tasks to ensure the deep assimilation of a specific amount of knowledge, skills and abilities by schoolchildren. The psychological and pedagogical significance of the goal lies in the fact that it organizes and mobilizes the creative forces of the teacher, helps to select and choose the most effective content, methods and forms of work. In the educational process, the goal "works" most intensively when it is well imagined not only by the teacher, but also by children. Explaining the goals of education to children is a powerful stimulus for their cognitive activity.
The content of the learning process can have a different structure of presentation. Structural elements are individual knowledge or its elements that can “link” with each other in various ways. The most common at present are linear, concentric, spiral and mixed content presentation structures.
With a linear structure, separate parts of the educational material form a continuous sequence of closely interconnected links that are worked out during schooling, as a rule, only once.
The concentric structure suggests a return to the knowledge being studied. The same question is repeated several times, and its content is gradually expanded, enriched with new information.
A characteristic feature of the spiral structure of the presentation is that students, without losing sight of the original problem, gradually expand and deepen the circle of knowledge related to it.
Mixed structure - a combination of linear, concentric and spiral structures.
The central figure, the system-forming beginning of the learning process is the teacher - the bearer of the content of education and upbringing, the organizer of all cognitive activity of children. His personality combines objective and subjective pedagogical values. In the learning process, the whole structure of the moral and aesthetic attitude of the teacher to life plays a huge role. The teacher sets in motion all the internal and external mechanisms of the learning process: he transfers knowledge, organizes and stimulates the cognitive activity of children, arouses interest and forms their need for knowledge [18, p. 169].
The term "method" comes from the Greek word "methodos", which means a way, a way to move towards the truth, towards the expected result. In pedagogical practice, by tradition, it is customary to understand the method as an ordered way of activity to achieve educational goals. At the same time, it is noted that the methods of educational activity of the teacher (teaching) and the methods of educational activity of students (teaching) are closely related and interact [7, p. 34].
The teaching method is characterized by three features. It denotes the purpose of learning, the method of assimilation and the nature of the interaction of subjects of learning. Therefore, the concept of a teaching method reflects:
- methods of teaching work of the teacher and methods of educational work of students in their relationship;
- the specifics of their work to achieve various learning objectives.
Thus, the teaching method is a special way of joint activities of the teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems.


1.2 Classification of teaching methods

Pedagogy has accumulated a large arsenal of teaching methods. All of them can be divided into several groups, applying a certain principle of approach to their selection. Since teaching methods have a number of aspects and can be considered in different aspects, it is quite natural that there are several approaches to their classification [25, p. 42].

Methods are divided into:
1) S. I. Perovsky, E. Ya. Golant divide teaching methods according to the sources of knowledge acquisition (verbal, visual, practical)
Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose a problem to the trainees and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of the word, the teacher can bring into the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of mankind. The word activates the imagination, memory, feelings of students.
When using verbal methods, the pace and tone of the presentation of the material should be taken into account. The pace should not be too fast, as this makes it difficult to perceive and understand what is heard. If the pace of speech is too slow, students gradually lose interest in the material being presented. Negatively affect the assimilation of the material too loud or quiet, as well as monotonous presentation. Sometimes a joke or an apt comparison is appropriate to defuse the situation. The further assimilation of the subject depends on how interesting the educational material is presented. If the teacher's speeches are boring, students may hate the subject he teaches. The verbal teaching methods include: story, lecture, conversation and explanation [26, p. 59].
A story is a narrative-informational method of presenting educational material, the purpose of which is to communicate facts and conclusions, describe events and phenomena.
This method involves an oral narrative presentation of educational material, not interrupted by questions to the trainees.
Explanation - a verbal interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object under study, individual concepts and phenomena. This is a monologue form of presentation, the use of which is most effective when studying complex educational material using methods of proof and reasoning. Explanation can be used both in its pure form and as an integral part of a story, conversation or lecture.
An educational lecture involves an oral presentation of educational material, which is more capacious than a story, with great complexity of logical constructions, images, proofs and generalizations. The lecture, as a rule, occupies the entire lesson, while the story occupies only part of it. During the lecture, methods of oral presentation of information, maintaining attention for a long time, activating the thinking of listeners, methods of ensuring logical memorization, persuasion, argumentation, evidence, classification, systematization and generalization are used.
Conversation is a dialogic teaching method, during which students either come to learn new material themselves, or consolidate and expand what they have learned earlier. It is organized with the help of a carefully thought-out system of questions, gradually leading students to assimilate a system of facts, a new concept or pattern. The method of conversation involves a conversation between the teacher and the students [20 p. 57-64].
Visual teaching methods contribute to the assimilation of educational material. As a rule, visual methods are not used separately from verbal and practical ones. They are intended for visual-sensual acquaintance with various kinds of phenomena, objects, processes, etc. Familiarization occurs with the help of various drawings, reproductions, diagrams. Recently, screen technology has been increasingly used in schools. Visual methods are usually divided into two groups:
- methods of illustrations;
- methods of demonstrations.
The method of illustrations is characterized by the display of various kinds of illustrative aids, tables, diagrams, sketches, models, posters, paintings, maps.
The method of demonstrations is the inclusion of instruments, experiments, films, technical installations, filmstrips in the educational process.
Recently, computers and information technologies have been widely used as visual ones, which make it possible to perform a lot of actions, including modeling the processes and phenomena under study.
Using visual methods, it is necessary to take into account some features:
- First of all, it is necessary to take into account the age of schoolchildren;
- there should be a measure in everything, including when using visual aids, i.e. they should be demonstrated gradually, in accordance with the moment of the lesson;
- visual aids must be shown so that they can be seen by every student;
- when showing visual aids, the main points (main thoughts) should be clearly distinguished;
- before giving explanations, they are carefully thought out in advance;
- when using visual aids, remember that they must exactly match the material presented;
- visual aids are designed to encourage students to look for the necessary information in them [19, p. 61].
Practical teaching methods are necessary for the formation of practical skills and abilities in schoolchildren. The basis of practical methods is practice. There are several types of practical methods: exercises, laboratory work, practical work.
Exercises are repeated actions, both oral and practical, aimed at improving their quality and mastering them. Exercises are necessary for absolutely every subject, as they form skills and consolidate the acquired knowledge. And this is typical for all stages of the educational process. However, the methodology and the very nature of the exercises for different subjects will be different, since they are influenced by the specific material, the issue under study and the age of the students.
Another type of practical methods is laboratory work, i.e. conducting experiments by schoolchildren on assignment and under the guidance of a teacher. At the same time, various devices, tools and technical means are used, with the help of which the children study some phenomenon.
Sometimes laboratory work is a research process for the study of any one phenomenon. For example, observations can be made of plant growth, weather, animal development.
Conducting practical work is associated with the completion of the study of large sections. They, summarizing the knowledge gained by schoolchildren in the process of learning, simultaneously check the level of assimilation of the material covered.
Practical work is carried out after studying large sections, and the topics are of a generalizing nature. They can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the school [33, p. 39-42].
2) M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov subdivide teaching methods depending on the main didactic tasks implemented at this stage of education (methods of verbal presentation of knowledge by the teacher and activation of the cognitive activity of students, methods of consolidating the material being studied, methods of independent work of students to comprehend and assimilation of new material, methods of educational work on the application of knowledge in practice and the development of skills and abilities, methods of testing and assessing knowledge, skills and abilities of students)
This classification of methods is consistent with the classical scheme for organizing a lesson and is subordinated to the task of helping teachers in the implementation of the educational process and simplifying the range of methods [15, p. 29].
Methods of oral presentation of knowledge by the teacher and activation of the cognitive activity of students: story, explanation, lecture, conversation.
The story and explanation of the teacher are the most common methods of organizing educational work. The story is a method of narrative-reporting presentation of the material being studied by the teacher, and activating the cognitive activity of students. Most often it is used in the presentation of such educational material, which is descriptive in nature. In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. Most often, it includes the teacher's reasoning, analysis of facts, examples, comparison of various phenomena, i.e. combined with the explanation of the studied material.
When working with older students, teachers have to verbally present a significant amount of new knowledge on certain topics, spending 20-30 minutes of the lesson on this, and sometimes the entire lesson. The presentation of such material is carried out with the help of a lecture.
The lecture differs from the story in that the presentation here is not interrupted by addressing the students with questions.
The essence of the conversation lies in the fact that the teacher, through skillfully posed questions, encourages students to reason, analyze the studied facts and phenomena in a certain logical sequence and independently approach the relevant theoretical conclusions and generalizations.
Methods of consolidating the studied material are conversation and work with the textbook.
In the course of each academic subject there are topics that are quite complex, causing difficulties in learning by students. In such cases, it is not always advisable for the teacher to conduct a conversation on assimilation (memorization) immediately after the presentation of new material. It is best to let the students work on their own with the textbook, and then have a conversation.
Methods of independent work of students to comprehend and assimilate new material: work with a textbook, laboratory work.
Independent work of students, included in the learning process, is such work that is performed without the direct participation of the teacher, but on his instructions at a specially provided time for this; at the same time, students consciously strive to achieve the goal set in the task, showing their efforts and expressing in one form or another the results of their mental and physical (or both) actions.
The essence of working with a textbook lies in the fact that the acquisition of new knowledge is carried out independently by each student through a thoughtful study of the material from the textbook and comprehension of the facts contained in it, examples and the theoretical generalizations arising from them (rules, conclusions, laws, etc.), while simultaneously with the assimilation knowledge, students acquire the ability to work with a book.
Laboratory work is a teaching method in which students, under the guidance of a teacher and according to a predetermined plan, do experiments or perform certain practical tasks and in the process they perceive and comprehend new educational material.
Laboratory work arouses in students a deep interest in the natural environment, the desire to comprehend, study the surrounding phenomena, apply the acquired knowledge to solving both practical and theoretical problems.
Methods of educational work on the application of knowledge in practice and the development of skills and abilities: exercises, laboratory exercises.
Skills and habits are formed using the method of exercises. The essence of this method is that students perform multiple actions, i.e. they train (exercises) in applying the learned material in practice and in this way deepen their knowledge, develop relevant skills and abilities, and also develop their thinking and creative abilities. It follows from this definition that exercises, firstly, should be of a conscious nature and be carried out only when students comprehend and master the material being studied, secondly, they should contribute to further deepening knowledge and, thirdly, contribute to the development of creative abilities schoolchildren.
The organization of laboratory work of students on the application of knowledge in practice includes the following techniques:
a) setting the goal of laboratory classes,
b) determining the order of work and managing the progress of its implementation,
c) summarizing the results of the work.
When conducting laboratory classes, students can use textbooks and other teaching aids, as well as consult with the teacher.
Methods for testing and evaluating students' knowledge, skills and abilities: daily observation of students' work, oral questioning, tests, checking homework, programmed control.
Checking and assessing the knowledge, skills and abilities of students is an important structural component of the learning process and, in accordance with the principles of systematic, consistent and robust learning, should be carried out throughout the entire period of study. This determines the various types of verification and assessment of knowledge. The main ones are the following:
a) current testing and assessment of knowledge, carried out in the course of daily training sessions;
b) a quarter test and assessment of knowledge, which is carried out at the end of each academic quarter;
c) annual assessment of knowledge, i.е. assessment of student performance for the year;
d) graduation and transfer exams.
Daily observation of the students' educational work allows the teacher to get an idea of ​​how students behave in the classroom, how they perceive and comprehend the material being studied, what kind of memory they have, to what extent they show intelligence and independence in developing practical skills and abilities, what are their learning aptitudes, interests and abilities. If the teacher accumulates a sufficient number of observations on all these issues, this allows him to take a more objective approach to testing and evaluating students' knowledge, as well as to take the necessary measures in a timely manner to prevent poor progress.
Oral questioning is the most common in testing and assessing knowledge. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the teacher asks students questions about the content of the studied material and encourages them to answer, thus revealing the quality and completeness of its assimilation. Since an oral survey is a question-answer method for testing students' knowledge, it is sometimes also called a conversation.
Examinations are a very effective method of testing and evaluating the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, as well as their creative abilities. The essence of this method lies in the fact that after passing through individual topics or sections of the curriculum, the teacher conducts a written or practical test and assessment of the knowledge, skills and abilities of students.
To check and evaluate the progress of students, checking their homework is of great importance. It allows the teacher to study the attitude of students to educational work, the quality of assimilation of the studied material, the presence of gaps in knowledge, as well as the degree of independence in doing homework.
Checking homework in one form or another is carried out at each lesson. In addition, the teacher periodically takes students' homework notebooks for special review and verification. As for the weak students, the teacher is obliged to regularly check all their homework.
The system for testing students' knowledge uses programmed control, which is also called an alternative method, or a method of choice. The essence of this method is that the student is offered questions, each of which is given three or four answers, but only one of them is correct. The student's task is to choose the correct answer [32, p. 159-163].
3) M. N. Skatkin, I. Ya. Lerner divide teaching methods according to the nature of the guidance of students' mental activity (explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problematic, partially search, research methods) [32, p. 63].
Explanatory-illustrative method (or informational-receptive): story, lecture, explanation, work with a textbook, demonstration of paintings, films and filmstrips.
The essence of this teaching method is that the teacher communicates the finished information by various means, and the students perceive it, realize it and fix it in memory. The explanatory-illustrative method is one of the most economical ways of transmitting information. However, when using this teaching method, the skills and abilities to use the acquired knowledge are not formed.
The main purpose of the method is to organize the assimilation of information by trainees by informing them of educational material and ensuring its successful perception.
For the acquisition of skills and abilities by students, the reproductive method of teaching is used (reproduction of actions to apply knowledge in practice, activities according to the algorithm, programming). Its essence is to repeat (repeatedly) the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher.
The activity of the teacher consists in the development and communication of the model, and the activity of the student is in the implementation of actions according to the model.
The main purpose of the method is the formation of skills and abilities to use and apply the acquired knowledge.
The essence of the problem method of presentation lies in the fact that the teacher poses a problem to the students and himself shows the way to solve it, revealing the contradictions that arise. The purpose of this method is to show patterns of scientific knowledge, scientific problem solving. At the same time, students follow the logic of solving the problem, receiving the standard of scientific thinking and cognition, an example of the culture of deploying cognitive actions.
The main purpose of the method is to reveal various problems in the studied educational material and show ways to solve them.
The main purpose of the partial search method is the gradual preparation of students for independent formulation and problem solving. The teacher in this case shows the students how to find evidence, draw conclusions from the facts given, build a test plan, etc. The activity of trainees consists in active participation in heuristic conversations, in mastering the methods of analyzing educational material in order to formulate a problem, identify contradictions and find ways to resolve them.
The main content of the method of the research method is to ensure the mastery of the taught methods of scientific knowledge, to develop and form the features of creative activity in them, to provide conditions for the successful formation of motives for creative activity, to promote the formation of conscious, quickly and flexibly used knowledge. The essence of the method is to provide organizations for the search creative activity of students to solve new problems for them [23, p. 94].
2 APPLICATION OF LEARNING METHODS IN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS

Based on the general principles of teaching, the teacher must have an idea of ​​when it is rational to apply the appropriate teaching methods, that is, to know their comparative capabilities.

When choosing teaching methods, one cannot ignore the characteristics of students. N. K. Krupskaya wrote: “... the technique is organically connected with the knowledge of the object of influence, that is, the person, growing, developing, to whom it is applied.
The nature of the tool is determined by the properties of the material, the modification of which it must produce: to pierce the canvas, you need a needle, leather - an awl, a stone - scrap, etc. So the methods of education and training change, should change depending on physical strength, life experience , the stock of knowledge and skills of the student, his skills for abstract thinking, etc.”
In this case, first of all, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of the students. In the elementary grades, it is more rational to give preference to a story and a conversation, in the middle group of classes - a conversation-story, and in the upper grades, along with the named methods, lectures can also be used.
The same can be said about visual methods: the proportion of their use, taking into account age characteristics, will decrease from the lower grades to the older ones. At the same time, the very nature of visualization will also change - from objective to more and more schematic. With regard to practical methods, the extent to which they are applied will depend entirely on the specifics of the topic, and the nature of the exercises will be determined by the program.
The teacher will have to take into account the age characteristics of the cognitive activity of schoolchildren. From junior to senior grades, memorization will change along the line of expanding logical techniques. Cognitive activity of a reproductive nature will be increasingly replaced by problem-search activity by the senior grades. The share of various methods of independent work of schoolchildren in mastering educational material will increase, and there will be fewer types of work associated with the direct presentation of educational material by the teacher in the lesson.
Experience shows that if there are difficulties in choosing methods, teachers should practice by completing a special exercise that provides answers to questions leading to the choice of the optimal set of methods in this lesson.
Let us pay attention to the fact that the questions in this exercise are structured in such a way that it is first proposed to evaluate the possibility of using a method that requires greater independence and active thinking of students, and if this choice is not possible, then the teacher's attention is drawn to another method.
Methods are selected that best take into account the peculiarities of the content of the studied, the capabilities of students, the availability of time for their application. As a result of such reasoning, the optimal set of methods for studying new educational material in the lesson is more reasonably, and not spontaneously chosen.
Such exercises are not performed systematically, but only in order to improve methodological qualifications. They allow you to repeat and consolidate the procedure for choosing methods in accordance with the main criteria for their optimal combination in the educational process. [2, p. 26].


2.1 Primary and secondary school age

Primary school age is a period in the life of a child from six to ten years old, when he is studying in primary school [11, p. 43]. Educational activity becomes the leading activity of this period. The younger student begins to assimilate human experience, presented in the form of scientific knowledge. Also, the junior school period is characterized by further improvement of higher nervous activity, the musculoskeletal system, and the development of mental functions. The junior school period occupies a special place in psychology also because this period of study at school is a qualitatively new stage in the psychological development of a person. Indeed, at this time, mental development is carried out mainly in the process of educational activity and, therefore, is determined by the degree of involvement of the student himself in it.

In the elementary grades, children begin to learn the beginnings of the sciences. At this stage, the intellectual-cognitive sphere of the psyche is predominantly developing. At this stage, many mental neoplasms appear, old ones are improved and developed. The school period is characterized by the intensive development of cognitive functions, sensory-perceptual, mental, mnemonic, etc. [28, p. 183-185].
It is also important to note that at the stage of primary school age, the child experiences the so-called crisis of seven years. The child's perception of his place in the system of relations changes. "The social situation of development is changing, and the child finds himself on the border of a new age period." The child is aware of his place in the world of social relations and acquires a new social position of the student, which is directly related to educational activities. This process radically changes his self-awareness, which leads to a reassessment of values. Study becomes of great importance for a student, therefore, for example, a child’s chain of failures in this activity, which is leading at this stage, can lead to the formation of stable complexes or even a syndrome of chronic underachievement [16, p. 251-255].
Of course, in order for teaching to become a leading activity, it must be organized in a special way. An important element of educational activity is the game, during which the child learns to interact with peers, masters social roles, requirements and rules adopted in human society. A game that takes on a social connotation develops feelings of rivalry and cooperation. During the game, younger students learn concepts such as equality, submission, justice, injustice. Usually younger students prefer the company of their peers of the same sex. The assimilation of the norms of behavior inherent in their gender and approved by society continues. In addition, younger students cannot sit in one place for a long time. They need movement. The lesson should contain not only an explanation of the new material, its consolidation and repetition of the old. But time should also be allocated to various motor actions, games, mobile activities.
Considering that play was the leading activity for preschoolers, learning activity, which becomes the leading one at this stage of development, is directly related to play. Therefore, learning activity can arise only at a certain stage in the development of the game.
"The most important personal characteristics of a younger student include: trusting obedience to authority, increased susceptibility, attentiveness, a naive-playful attitude to much of what he encounters." Obedience, conformity and imitation are visible in the behavior of a primary school student.
Learning at school is a fairly new and therefore interesting activity for children, while they also face a number of difficulties. Schoolchildren initially, of course, do not know how to independently formulate learning tasks and perform actions to solve them. "For the time being, the teacher helps them in this, but gradually they acquire the appropriate skills themselves (it is in this process that they develop independently carried out educational activities, the ability to learn" [6, pp. 32, 97]. Children at this age have a share impulsiveness, capriciousness, stubbornness. Volitional processes are not yet sufficiently developed in younger students. But gradually the ability to show volitional efforts appears in the mental activity and behavior of schoolchildren. Students form voluntary mental actions, for example, intentional memorization, strong-willed attention, directed and persistent observation, perseverance in solving various problems. Therefore, the importance of evaluating the results of the student's activities by adults is increasing. "The educational and cognitive activity of a schoolchild as socially and individually significant essentially has a dual stimulation: internal, when the student receives satisfaction by acquiring new knowledge and skills, and external, when his achievements in cognition are evaluated by the teacher" [28, p. 203]. Evaluation by the teacher is an incentive for the student. This assessment also greatly affects the student's self-esteem. Moreover, the need for evaluation and the strength of experiences are much higher for weaker students. Evaluation acts as a reward. It helps the child learn to self-assess their own work over time. And it should not just be an assessment of the result, but also the actions of the student, the method chosen by him for solving any particular problem. A teacher in the elementary grades of a school cannot confine himself to simply making a mark in a journal as an assessment of a student's performance. A meaningful assessment is important here, that is, the teacher needs to explain to the student why this particular assessment was made, to highlight the positive and negative aspects of the child's work. Subsequently, the teacher, evaluating the educational activities of children, its results and process, forms evaluation criteria for children. highlight the positive and negative aspects of the child's work. Subsequently, the teacher, evaluating the educational activities of children, its results and process, forms evaluation criteria for children. highlight the positive and negative aspects of the child's work. Subsequently, the teacher, evaluating the educational activities of children, its results and process, forms evaluation criteria for children.
With the arrival of a child in school, the social situation changes, but internally, psychologically, the child remains still in preschool childhood. The main activities for the child continue to be playing, drawing, designing. Learning activities are yet to be developed.
Arbitrary control of actions, which is necessary in educational activities, compliance with the rules is possible at first, when close goals are clear to the child and when he knows that the time of his efforts is limited by a small number of tasks. Prolonged tension of voluntary attention to learning activities makes it difficult and tires the child.
Under the conditions of educational activity, the child should be brought to the understanding that this is a completely different activity than the game, and it makes real, serious demands on him so that he learns to really change himself, and not symbolically, “for fun”.
Children must learn to distinguish between play and learning tasks, understand that a learning task, unlike a game, is mandatory, it must be completed regardless of whether the child wants to do it or not. The game itself should not be excluded from the sphere of the active life of the child. It is wrong to point out to a child that he has already become big and to play with toys “like a little one” should now be ashamed.
The game is not only a purely childish activity. This is also an occupation that serves to entertain, to fill the leisure of people of all ages.
Usually, the child gradually begins to understand the meaning of the game in the conditions of his new place in the system of social relations of people, while invariably and passionately love to play. [18, p. 51].
The teacher's word is the most accessible and widespread teaching tool. Having learned to use the word, the teacher makes even the most abstract concepts, ideas understandable to children. With the help of a word, he can evoke in the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, the beautiful future of mankind, the structure of the universe. The word activates the imagination, memory, feelings of students. At the first stage of learning, until the children have learned to use the book, the word is almost the only tool for understanding the world.
Only after passing the first and most difficult stage of mastering the technique of reading, the child becomes inseparable from the book.
The success of further education of students in the middle classes will largely depend on how strong the skills of conscious, thoughtful, concentrated reading and reproducing what they have read, understanding the text and lexical analysis of its difficult places, logical analysis of the text in connection with the tasks of the teacher and the educational needs of children, clarification of the ideological meaning of read articles, stories.
In grade 1, children learn to plan what they read. In the third grade, they already know how to make a plan for a long story or passage, formulating the points of the plan in the form of nominal sentences. Further work with the textbook and the book prepares children for the perception of the text, equips them with the ability to think about the title of the article, develops in children the skills of attentive reading with emphasis on the main goal. Of no less importance is the instilling in schoolchildren of the skill of independent work on an article, careful monitoring by the teacher of the correct understanding of what the students have read, and clarifying the children's attitude to the events, actions, and actions of the characters.
As students master the technique of reading, they need to be equipped with the skills to independently study the material from the textbook and the book, be able to perform the following actions:
- define the topic, question and give yourself an account of what you need to know, what to understand;
- carefully read the material, break it into parts and draw up a plan for what was read;
- give oral answers to questions (short and detailed);
- learn to give your examples to the reading;
- to be able to formulate conclusions on everything read.
The ability to work with a book develops and improves during various extracurricular activities: competitions for the best story in a book, joint discussions of books read, finding the best excerpts in artistic terms in books read.
Properly placed observations contribute to the development of the mental abilities of children. This idea was confirmed in the experiments of V. A. Sukhomlinsky. He rightly believed that the sharpness of children's memory, the brightness of thought, with the child entering school, would not only not be weakened, but even more intensified if the surrounding world became the environment in which the child learns to think, remember and reason. And he selected for the entire period of children's education in elementary school a strictly defined range of phenomena that would become the subject of observation of his pupils. This is how 300 pages of the "Book of Nature" were formed, as V. A. Sukhomlinsky figuratively called it. In this experience, which many teachers will refer to more than once, the clear position of the author attracts: observation of nature is the source and means of mental development of students, strict selection of objects of observation, a finely developed technique for conducting observations, aimed at awakening the mental activity of pupils [30, p. 165].
On the basis of long-term experiments, V. A. Sukhomlinsky revealed an important regularity in the mental development of schoolchildren: “... The more abstract truths, generalizations need to be learned in the lesson, the more intense this mental work, the more often the student should turn to the primary source of knowledge - to nature, the more images and pictures of the surrounding world should be imprinted in his mind more vividly ... Mental education begins where there is theoretical thinking, where living contemplation is not the ultimate goal, but only a means: a vivid image of the surrounding world is a source for the teacher, in various forms, colors, the sounds of which hide thousands of questions” [32, p. 218].
These experiments of a remarkable Soviet teacher convince us that observations should accompany the entire process of teaching children in elementary school.
Simple observations are made daily by the student. Their nature can be different: examining the movement of fish in a bank, observing the growth of plants, observing animals, etc. Observations can be carried out according to a specific program formulated by the teacher together with the students. They can be preliminary to the study of the material or final, final.
Demonstration of objects is widely used in elementary grades: tools, rock samples, agricultural plants. Sometimes the teacher distributes some items to the students. In this case, the demonstration is combined with the method of observation. Didactics formulates the following rules for the demonstration of objects: the object must be shown in such a way that it is perceived by various senses. Under this condition, the most significant aspects of the object will make a strong impression on students. It is important to show the subject in change and development.
Not all subjects can be shown in the classroom, so the demonstration of pictures and diagrams is of great importance in the educational process. When selecting pictures, the teacher cannot but take into account some of the psychological conditions of the impact of the picture on the perception of students. Pictures used for educational purposes should be colorful and large enough for all students to see.
Filmstrips are widely used in elementary grades. This is a form of visualization accessible to every teacher. Filmstrip makes it possible to show phenomena in motion, to penetrate into processes hidden from students. And at the same time, the use of a filmoscope allows the teacher to successfully combine the demonstration of a filmstrip with a story or conversation, to focus students' attention on individual frames, repeat their demonstration, and successfully combine demonstrations of a filmstrip with reading. A variety of filmstrips have been created for elementary schools. It is important to widely use all their diversity in educational work with younger students.
The demonstration of educational films is increasingly included in the practice of educational work. The use of cinema requires more thorough preparation from the teacher. First of all, the teacher has to first get acquainted with the content of the picture himself in order to decide on the combination of cinema with other teaching methods. As a rule, the teacher gives the necessary preliminary explanations before showing the film, makes some comments during the demonstration so that the children see the main thing, and after the end of the demonstration uses the content of the film for a deeper mastery of the material being studied.
In elementary grades, this method of using a movie can always be acceptable. It happens that children watch a movie and do not see what the teacher needs. Therefore, quite often it is necessary to interrupt the demonstration, make the necessary explanations, identify the quality and completeness of the perception of one or another material, and only after that continue the demonstration of the film.
In elementary grades, a wide variety of written exercises are given. They should be carried out especially carefully and be well decorated. In this regard, I would like to draw the attention of future teachers to the importance of accurate keeping of notebooks by all students. It is necessary that a certain mode of keeping notebooks be established in schools, which must be strictly followed.
Educational and practical work. Their goal is to ensure the consolidation and concretization of the theoretical knowledge of students, to more fully implement the connection between theory and practice in teaching. An example of such work in agriculture can be soil analysis, the study of mineral fertilizers, the development of a diet for feeding livestock, etc.
Practical work is carried out not only in the classroom. These include work growing plants, caring for animals, harvesting crops, and working in the school grounds. Direct labor is a logical continuation of practical work, a necessary component of it.
The expansion of the volume of practical work in the educational process of the school encourages didactics to seek conditions for increasing their effectiveness. One of these conditions is the close connection of practical work with scientific knowledge.
Practical work should be selected and carried out in such a way that they contribute to the deepening of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities.
It is enough to observe the course of the practical work of schoolchildren to make sure that they do not always resort to the help of the acquired knowledge in the course of their work. The need for independent application of knowledge arises if students are given a complex labor task (to grow a high yield of any crop on the site), it is required to draw up a reasonable plan for the upcoming work, to motivate its individual sections.
Children will successfully cope with the work if they know the order of its implementation. They need not only to tell, but also to show how best to do the job.
Of great importance is the organization of students in the performance of work. The introduction of elements of the division of labor between students or units, teams, the organization of competition for the best performance of work will significantly increase its educational value. In such work, the shoots of collectivism grow and ripen. Each practical work ends with a summing up and its evaluation.
Creative work of students. The task of the school in the assimilation of knowledge cannot be reduced to the training of students. It is important to develop their creative abilities. For this purpose, various types of creative work are used, related to the generalization of knowledge available in a particular field and the creation of new original products, projects, etc. on their basis.
Depending on the nature of each subject, creative work can be different: presentations, compositions, drafting and solving problems, designing, experimental work. In the first years of study, much attention is paid to mastering the educational material, but in this process, a significant place is occupied by the creative approach of students.
Encourage children to solve the problem in a different way, come up with their own title for the article, present the material in their own way, introduce an element of independence into drawing, modeling, making certain crafts - all this will significantly increase the impact of education on the development of children's creative abilities. I would like to especially emphasize the role of creativity in teaching younger students, since it is at this age that certain abilities are formed. Therefore, as students grow, various creative works should take an increasingly important place in the educational process [30, p. 192].
The average school age is from 11-12 to 15 years old - a transitional period from childhood to adolescence. It coincides with schooling at the second stage (grades 5-9) and is characterized by a general rise in vital activity and a profound restructuring of the whole organism.
At this age, there is a rapid growth and development of the whole organism.
Significantly increases muscle strength. But the development of internal organs occurs unevenly, which leads to various disorders: increased heart rate, rapid breathing. The development of the nervous system, mental activity continues.
The uneven physical development of middle school children affects their behavior: they gesticulate excessively, their movements are impetuous, poorly coordinated.
The worldview, moral ideals, the system of value judgments, the moral principles that guide the student in his behavior have not yet acquired stability, they are easily destroyed by the opinions of comrades, the contradictions of life.
Properly organized education plays a decisive role. Depending on what kind of moral experience a teenager acquires, his personality will develop.[31, p. 204]
N.K. Krupskaya characterized the mental world of a teenager with the psychology of a half-child-half-adult: in his development he has already “left” children, but has not yet “attached” to adults. The period is difficult both for the teenager himself and for the people around him.
During adolescence, the development of the nervous system continues. The brain of a teenager in terms of weight and volume is not much different from the brain of an adult. The role of consciousness increases, the control of the cerebral cortex over instincts and emotions improves. However, the processes of excitation still prevail over the processes of inhibition, therefore, adolescents are characterized by increased excitability. [24, p. 132].
The main activity of a teenager, as well as a younger student, is teaching, but the content and nature of educational activity at this age changes significantly. A teenager begins to systematically master the basics of science. Education becomes multidisciplinary, the place of one teacher is occupied by a team of teachers. Teenagers are more demanding. This leads to a change in attitude towards teaching. For a middle-aged student, learning has become a common thing. Students sometimes tend not to bother themselves with unnecessary exercises, they complete the lessons within the given limits or even less. Often there is a decline in performance. What prompted the younger student to study actively no longer plays such a role, and new motivations for learning (setting for the future, long-term prospects) have not yet appeared.
A teenager is not always aware of the role of theoretical knowledge, most often he associates them with personal, narrowly practical goals. For example, often a seventh grader does not know and does not want to learn the rules of grammar, as he is “convinced” that even without this knowledge one can write correctly. The younger student takes all the instructions of the teacher on faith - the teenager must know why it is necessary to perform this or that task. Often in the classroom you can hear: “Why do this?”, “Why?” In these questions, one can see bewilderment, and some discontent, and sometimes even distrust of the teacher's requirements.
At the same time, adolescents tend to perform independent tasks and practical work in the classroom. They readily take up the production of visual aids, and respond eagerly to the proposal to make a simple device. Even students with low academic performance and discipline actively manifest themselves in such a situation.
The teenager is especially bright in extracurricular activities. In addition to lessons, he has many other things that take up his time and energy, sometimes distracting him from his studies.
A teenager in games brightly manifests himself. A large place is occupied by games, trips, travel. They love outdoor games, but those that contain an element of competition. Outdoor games begin to take on the character of sports (football, tennis, volleyball, a game like "Funny Starts", war games). In these games, ingenuity, orientation, courage, dexterity, and speed come to the fore. Teenagers' games are more sustainable. Being carried away by the game, teenagers often do not know how to allocate time between games and study sessions.
In school education, school subjects begin to appear for teenagers as a special area of ​​theoretical knowledge. They get acquainted with a lot of facts, are ready to talk about them or even make short reports in the lesson. However, adolescents are beginning to be interested not in the facts in themselves, but in their essence, the reasons for their occurrence, but penetration into the essence is not always distinguished by depth. Images, ideas continue to occupy a large place in the mental activity of a teenager. Often the details, small facts, details make it difficult to single out the main, essential and make the necessary generalization. Students tell in some detail, for example, about the uprising led by Stepan Razin, but they find it difficult to reveal its socio-historical essence. For teenagers, as well as for younger schoolchildren, the installation is more likely to memorize the material,
At the same time, unlike the younger student, who perceives ready-made things with great interest, the teenager strives for independence in mental activity. Many teenagers prefer to cope with tasks without writing them off the board, try to avoid additional explanations if they think they can understand the material themselves, try to come up with their own original example, express their own opinions, etc. Along with independent thinking develops and criticality. Unlike the younger student, who takes everything on faith, the teenager makes higher demands on the content of the teacher's story, he expects evidence, persuasiveness.
In the field of the emotional-volitional sphere, a teenager is characterized by great passion, inability to restrain oneself, weakness of self-control, sharpness in behavior. If the slightest injustice is manifested in relation to him, he is able to “explode”, fall into a state of passion, although he may later regret it. This behavior occurs especially in a state of fatigue. The emotional excitability of a teenager is very clearly manifested in the fact that he passionately, passionately argues, argues, expresses indignation, reacts violently and experiences along with the heroes of films or books.
When faced with difficulties, strong negative feelings arise, which lead to the fact that the student does not complete the work he has begun. At the same time, a teenager can be persistent, self-possessed, if the activity causes strong positive feelings.
Adolescence is characterized by an active search for an object to follow. The ideal of a teenager is an emotionally colored, experienced and internally accepted image that serves as a model for him, a regulator of his behavior and a criterion for evaluating the behavior of other people. But the effectiveness of the ideal is determined not so much by the adolescent's intellectual activity as by the strength of his emotions. A specific person often acts as an ideal. Usually these are outstanding people, bright, heroic personalities, about which he learns from books, films, and less often close people, towards whom he is more critical [13, p. 128]
In the middle classes, conversation and story are mainly used from verbal methods; from visual methods, you can use a larger number of diagrams, diagrams, graphs with a significant degree of generalization and, of course, subject visibility, if the level of development of logical and abstract thinking of students allows.


2.2 Senior school age

Senior school age (youth) covers children from 16 to 18 years old (grades 9-11). This age also includes students of secondary specialized educational institutions.

Educational discussion can be partially applied in the senior classes of the basic school and to the full extent in the classes of the complete secondary school.
Perception becomes meaningful, consistent, systematic, which contributes to the formation of observation as a purposeful and organized perception. The first impression plays an important role in perception, if it turned out to be incomplete, then this can lead to a distorted, incorrect assimilation of the material.
Thinking is still concrete-figurative. When acquiring knowledge, visual material is of great importance. In the future, thinking becomes more logical and reasonable, the ability to independently analyze, generalize, compare develops. The verbal-logical form of the concept develops. Attention improves and becomes more and more arbitrary [12, p. 73].
At the age of 15-17, the cognitive sphere is finally formed in schoolchildren. They are in complete control of their mental processes, subordinating them to certain tasks of life and activity.
Observation becomes more focused and systematized. But the most significant changes occur in mental activity, in the nature of mental work. High school students are able to independently understand the new educational material, write an essay, explain the phenomenon, argue, prove the truth or falsity of the provisions, think critically.
The teacher, if he wants to carry out developmental education, which involves the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts, must take care of organizing educational activity that is adequate for this task, a fundamentally new educational activity for children. In this regard, the problem of developmental teaching methods arises.
The function of teaching methods, ultimately, is to organize and support the learning activity of students that ensures the achievement of learning goals.
Learning is based on learning activity of a reproducing type. The organization of such activity assumes that students, firstly, clearly identify and fix the method of action proposed for assimilation; secondly, to one degree or another they will understand its meaning and structure; thirdly, they will be able to more or less accurately reproduce it when performing appropriate exercises. To ensure these most important conditions for the success of the reproducing educational activity of students, the efforts of the teacher in the learning process are directed. One way or another, he will have to demonstrate a sample of the solution method proposed for assimilation, explain it as intelligibly as possible and ensure reliable control over the correctness of its application in solving training problems.
A necessary initial stage in the deployment of search activity is the setting of an educational task for students, which requires them to reanalyze the situation of action, to understand it anew.
If the teacher managed to set a learning task for the students, then his subsequent efforts should be directed to organizing its solution, that is, to organizing the actual search activity. The teacher must get involved in the search activity of students and organize it "from the inside". Two conditions: firstly, the teacher must become a real participant in the modern search, and not its leader. Secondly, he should not impose on them the "correct" way of solution.
Finally, when the learning problem is solved, the teacher will have to organize an assessment of the solution found.
The formulation of the educational task, its joint solution with the students, the organization of the assessment of the found mode of action, these are the three components of the method that is adequate to the purpose and content of developing education.
The teacher and the student carry out a joint search, which acquires the character of a jointly distributed activity.
Involving in a joint educational and search activity with the student, the teacher directs it, relying on a non-prognostic assessment of the student's capabilities, in accordance with which he rearranges the conditions of the educational task at each next stage of its solution.
The style of educational cooperation can vary within a fairly wide range - from easy-confiding to hard-demanding, but its essence always remains the same: the teacher does not lead the student, but only helps him determine the next goal and find the best path to it.
In order for each individual student to act as a subject of educational and search activity, he must interact not only with the teacher, but also with other similar subjects. This means that a student can be the subject of learning if he acts not next to other students, and independently of them, but together with them, if his activity unfolds within the framework of a collective educational dialogue.
The ability to organize and maintain a collective educational dialogue is the most difficult component of a teacher's methodological skill.
The optimal form of the educational process, which allows organizing the search activity of students and thereby realizing the goals of developmental education, is a collective dialogue, during which the content of the next educational task is determined and ways to solve it are outlined. At the same time, this form of organization of the educational process has a decisive influence on its communicative characteristics.

CONCLUSION

The needs of society and the school, the current level of psychology and pedagogy have necessitated a systematic study of the problem of teaching methods. In this course work, these problems were considered.

Consideration of this topic requires the use of special terms:
Pedagogy is the science of the purposeful process of transferring human experience and preparing the younger generation for life and activity [24, p. 4].
Teaching methods are ways of joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving their educational goals.
The learning process is a purposeful interaction between the teacher and students, during which the tasks of educating students are solved [2, p. 16].
Various classifications of teaching methods are described. The most popular of them is the classification of teaching methods by sources of knowledge. It was proposed by S. I. Perovsky and E. Ya. Golant.
The presented teaching methods carry different potential opportunities for stimulating and motivating the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren in learning.
Verbal methods are very effective in the link of knowledge formation, in the link of consolidation and improvement of knowledge; they are ineffective in terms of applying knowledge in practice, repeating and systematizing knowledge, checking the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities; are ineffective in the link of formation of skills and abilities. Visual methods are very effective in the link of knowledge formation, in the link of consolidating and improving knowledge, however, they are ineffective in the link of forming skills and abilities and inefficient in the link of applying knowledge in practice. Practical methods are effective in the link of skills formation, application of knowledge in practice, ineffective in the link of consolidation and improvement of knowledge and ineffective in the links of knowledge formation, repetition and systematization of knowledge.
Methods classified by sources of knowledge mainly stimulate the motive of the student's duty to learn. The methods, classified according to the nature of the mental activity of students, are aimed at stimulating the students' desire to act actively in solving problem-cognitive tasks, overcome difficulties in educational cognition, persistently move towards the intended goal, the achievement of which is accompanied by situations of experiencing success, joy and the desire to be in constant search situations [1, p. 142].

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