Typology of syntactical systems of the English/Russian and Uzbek languages

Typology of syntactical systems of the English/Russian and
Uzbek languages
Typological Category of Gender
Majority of modern Indo-European languages possess lexico-grammatical category of gender. The category of gender is manifested in the ability of nouns to assimilate pronouns and adjectives with their forms. In Russian the grammatical category of gender is widely used. Every noun has the meaning of gender that is masculine, feminine and neuter. The category of gender, in Russian has the formal character with nouns denoting concrete and abstract objects, with nouns denoting persons or animals; it has a semantic character, for example, zvezda, mesyas, moloko, nadejda, lyubovь, doverie, matь, otets, tetya, dyadya. Sems of gender, case and number are expressed in affixal morphemes of nouns. The morpheme -em in the noun «mesyasem» includes sems of objectness, singularity, masculine gender and case, the morpheme «- oy» in the noun «zvezdoy» includes sems of objectness, singularity, feminine gender and case. Comparison of two secondary morphemes clears out that the difference in gender is expressed materially. As we have seen the morpheme - em expresses masculine gender and morpheme -oy -feminine gender. The category of gender of nouns in Russian agrees with adjectives, numerals, possessive and demonstrative pronouns in number and case, forming free word combinations with them: bolьshoe okno, dva okna, eti okna, moe okno, dve shkolы, moya shkola.
Another special characteristic of morphological structure of the Russian language being absent in the English and Uzbek languages is the ability of nouns to agree in gender with forms of verbs in the past tense. Devochka opozdala na urok. Etot uchenik prishel na repetitsiyu vovremya. Sensation of gender in Russian is so great that even borrowed words according to their appearance belong to the concrete form of gender. Inanimate nouns with the ending «-o» as -leto, kino, byuro belong to the neuter gender.
The category of gender-masculine, feminine and neuter, was the characteristic of the old English language. But at the result of historical development of the English morphological structure the category of grammatical gender has lost its formal expression.
Summing up analysis of the category of gender we can say that this category, including three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter, is the typological characteristic of the Russian language. In the English and Uzbek languages there is no grammatical category of gender. There is a semantic category of gender, which is expressed by the addition of some words denoting natural gender, such as mother, father, girl, boy, a schoolboy, a schoolgirl, mother wolf, ona buri, ota buri etc.
Besides, we should mark that in the Uzbek language in some borrowed words we notice morphological expression of gender. Cp: shoir-shoira, Hamid-Hamida, tolib-talaba, kotib-kotiba, muslim-muslima. But these words are few and they can't be the characteristic feature of the Uzbek language.
Typological Category of Adjectives and Degrees of Comparison in the Russian, English and Uzbek Languages
According to the typological signs adjectives in the Uzbek, English and Russian languages differ from each other greatly. According to the meaning adjectives in Russian are divided into three groups: 1) qualitative adjectives (these adjectives are bolьshoy, malenьkiy, vыsokiy, nizkiy, tolstыy, tonkiy); 2) relative adjectives which are formed of nouns (kamenь-kamennыy, vesna-vesenniy, Moskva-Moskovskiy) (Ne imeyut kratkoy formы, stepeney sravneniya, ne sochetayutsya s narechiyami «ochenь» (i ego sinonimami) i «slishkom», ne imeyut antonimov); 3) possessive adjectives (otsov dom, sestrina sumka, mamina shkola) (Oboznachayut prinadlejnostь predmeta jivomu suщestvu ili litsu (otsovskiy, sestrin, lisiy). Otvechayut na vopros «chey?». Prityajatelьnыe prilagatelьnыe mogut perexoditь v razryad otnositelьnыx ili kachestvennыx: zayachьya (prityaj.) sherstь, zayachьya (kachestv.) dusha, zayachiy (otnos.) sled.
Ne imeyut kratkoy formы, stepeney sravneniya, ne sochetayutsya s narechiyami «ochenь» (i ego sinonimami) i «slishkom», ne imeyut antonimov).
Differing from the Russian language adjectives in English possess only qualitative adjectives (white, large, strong) and relative adjectives (Otnositelьnыe prilagatelьnыe opisыvayut kachestva predmeta cherez ego otnoshenie k materialam (wooden, leathern), mestu (Eastern, Swedish), vremeni (daily, monthly) ili svyazi (heavenly, motherly). Oni ne imeyut stepeney sravneniya. Inogda otnositelьnыe prilagatelьnыe mogut vыpolnyatь rolь kachestvennыx (iron will) i naoborot). Most relative adjectives in English are scientific terms (biological, chemical, industrial). Absence of the system of relative adjectives is supplied by attributive constructions consisted of two nouns (a brick wall, a gold watch, Moscow streets). (This is the order you should generally follow: Determiner > opinion -> size -> age -> shape -> color -> origin -> material -> a word describing purpose/function).
These phenomena exist in the Uzbek language too: tilla soat, jun rumol. As we have seen in the above word combinations the first noun (In the English and Uzbek languages) perform attributive function to the second one; tilla soat - gold watch.
Possessive adjectives don't exist in the English and Uzbek languages either, this function is performed by the particle -'s in the English, by the secondary (affixal) morpheme -ning in the Uzbek languages: otsov dom- mu father's house-otamning uyi.
According to the expression of their grammatical categories adjectives in the English and Russian languages differ from each other greatly. Adjectives in Russian agree with nouns they modify in number, gender and case, for example: zelenыy list-zelenaya trava- zelenoe yabloko, adjectives in English don't possess such a typological sign. In this case the English language corresponds to the Uzbek language where adjectives don't agree with nouns they modify in number, case and gender: a beautiful woman - a handsome man, chiroyli ayol- chiroyli yigit.
Next differential sign of Russian adjectives (qualitative adjectives only) is that, they possess two forms: short and full forms. (Bolьshinstvo kachestvennыx prilagatelьnыx, i tolьko oni, imeyut dve formы: polnuyu (umnыy, vkusnыy) i kratkuyu (umyon, vkusen). Polnaya forma izmenyaetsya po chislam, rodam i padejam. Kratkaya forma — tolьko po rodam i chislam. V predlojenii kratkaya forma upotreblyaetsya kak skazuemoe, a polnaya — obыchno kak opredelenie. Nekotorыe kachestvennыe prilagatelьnыe ne imeyut kratkoy formы (drujeskiy, razlyubeznыy)[1]. Drugie, naoborot, ne imeyut polnoy formы (rad, gorazd, doljen, nadoben)[2] Adjectives with full forms perform attributive function in the sentence (vыsokaya bashnya-goluboe nebo), sometimes they perform the function of the predicative: nasha ulitsa shirokaya. Adjectives in short forms perform the function of the predicative too: jiznь korotka. Adjectives in short forms in the function of the predicate agree with the noun they modify in gender and case: nebo mutno - nochь mutna. In the English language adjectives don't possess short and long forms. The same adjective is used both for the attribute and predicative functions. This characteristic is found in the Uzbek language.
According to the structure degrees of comparison in the Russian, English and Uzbek languages are expressed both on the morphological and syntactical levels of the language. They are expressed both synthetically and analytically, for example: polnыy-polnee, starыy-starshe, tonkiy-tonьshe. As we have seen in mentioned adjectives comparative degree is expressed in the phono - morphological level of the language synthetically by adding morphemes; -ee, -ey, -e, -she. The way of adding secondary morphemes to the stem of adjectives show that it is a synthetico-inflected means of uniting the root morpheme with the affixal one, as the root morpheme changes its appearance by taking a required secondary morpheme. Some adjectives in Russian form their comparative degree on the syntactic level of the language analytically by the words: bolee, menee: bolee silьnыy, menee udachnыy.
In the English and Uzbek languages the comparative degree is also expressed on the phonological level of the language. But this kind of synthetic expression of the comparative degree differs from the synthetic expression of the comparative degree in the Russian language greatly. In the Uzbek and English languages the way of adding the affixal morpheme to the stem of adjectives is not syntheticoinflected as it is in Russian, but it is synthetico- agglutinative. Because the root morpheme doesn't change its appearance by taking affixal morphemes, for example: yaxshi-rok, kulay-rok; wide-r, strong-er. In the English language as in the Russian adjectives (which possess two or more roots) form their comparative degree on the syntactic level of the language by the words more or less, for example: more beautiful, less beautiful. In this case the English language corresponds to the Russian one.
The superlative degree is expressed on the syntactic level of the Russian, English and Uzbek languages by the words: samыy, the most, eng: samыy bolьshoy, the most handsome, eng baland. Besides this, the superlative degree is also expressed on the morphological level of the Russian and English languages by adding the morphemes -aysh, -eysh in Russian: melkiy-melьchayshiy, novыy- noveyshiy, by the morpheme -est in English: the smallest, the strongest. The Uzbek language doesn't possess this characteristic feature. The superlative degree in the Uzbek language is expressed only analytically by the combination of the word eng with the adjective: eng baland, eng aqlli, eng katta. Analyses of the factual material show that there is a great difference in the synthetic way of adding secondary morphemes to the stems of the English and Russian languages. In Russian affixal morphemes change root morphemes, that is a synthetico-inflected way of adding secondary morphemes to the root morphemes. In the English and Uzbek languages the affixal morpheme doesn't change the appearance of the root that is the synthetico-agglutinative way of adding morphemes.
Typological category of plurality
The system of grammatical forms expressing grammatical degree (number) is termed (called) the category of plurality. In comparing languages the formants indicating this category are usually added to the stem of nouns (or pronouns). We should distinguish the logical number (degree) and grammatical number. From the logical point of view proper nouns usually denote a single thing or a person, e.g.: John, London, To‘ytepa, etc. The common nouns are used to denote common type of things, of course, logically more than one. As we know the category of plurality denotes more than oneness of things, people or phenomena. Grammatically it can be based on the opposition of `zero morpheme and the suffix - s, - en, and root changing abilities of some nouns: i.e.: - s, - en. In Uzbek it is based on the opposition of zero morpheme and suffix - lar, i.e. - lar. Among the parts of speech this category is distinguished grammatically by nouns, pronouns and verbs. In comparing languages this category may also be denoted lexically by numerals. (i.e. two, fifteen, thirty, thousand: -ikki, o‘n besh, o‘ttiz, ming). Numerals are not used in the grammatical plural forms because in the plural form they become substantivized, i.e. they become nouns (ikkilar, oltichilar). It should be kept in mind that there are languages having `dual` and `trial` numbers.
Plurality of nouns
Uzbek nouns and pronouns usually denote this number by means of suffix - lar (eg: odam - lar, muttaham-lar), which can sometimes be used also to denote respect to a person who is spoken about, e.g.: Dadamlar keldilar. (But you have to keep in mind that you can't have more than one father). English nouns can express the notion of plurality in the following ways: a) by means of suffixes: -s, -es (wife-wives, head-heads); - en (ox-oxen, child-children); - a (datum-data, sanatoriumsanatoria, phenomenon-phenomena) etc. b) by changing the root vowel (man-men, goose-geese).
Plurality of verbs
The English verbs can denote the notion of plurality in the following ways: a) by opposing the finite verbs in the third person singular to the other forms with zero morpheme: live-s live; b) by means of suppletive forms of auxiliary verbs: am, is-are; was-were; has-have-had;
The Uzbek verbs usually express plurality by means of the following suffixes: a) - lar (keldi) lar; b)- miz, - siz, - giz, dilar (bora-miz, keladilar); z) -sh, -ish (kel-ishdi);
This category can be expressed by means of personal pronouns in both languages; Cl.: I-we; me-us; he / she / it-they; In Uzbek: men-biz sen-sizlar; u-ular. Lexically this category may be expressed in both languages with the help of numerals. e.g.: dual-ikkilik, majority-ko‘pchilik, family-oila, pairjuft, double-ikki (lantirilgan), etc. Plurality can sometimes be expressed by means of prepositions (between, among-orasda, o‘rtasda), adverbs (arm-in-arm-yo‘llanilib), indefinite pronouns (some-bir necha, ancha, biroz), verbs (join-qo‘shilmoq birlashmoq, gather -to‘plamoq), get together – yig‘ilmoq, unite - birlashmoq) also by quantitative markers (two-seater, many staged, two-storeyed):
and in Uzbek (ko‘pxad, qo‘shariq, uchko‘prik).
Typological categories of tense and aspect
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates time of the action from the point of view of the moment of speech. In English we distinguish three tenses; past, present and past. Past tense denotes an action which has taken place at a definite time before the moment of speech. Present tense denotes a regular or current action happening around the moment of speech. Future tense denotes an action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech. The English verbs also distinguish the category of aspect: continuous process. The notion of aspect can also be described as a form of the verb that shows habituality, continuance or completion of the action or state expressed by the root of the verb. In Uzbek grammars aspect is not studied as a separate category of the verb as it is not always expressed distinctly as it seems because of the lack, of the analytical forms. In the comparing languages the categories of tense and aspect are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them separately. One and the same form of the verb serves to express tense and aspect at the same time and therefore they should be regarded as a 'tense - aspect forms' of the verb. In the comparing languages we distinguish three aspects of the verb forms: Simple (Common or Indefinite), Continuous and Perfect aspects. Combining with all the tense forms of the verb they form the so called 'tense aspect forms of the verb.
Present simple expresses a usual, current or habitual action that takes place in our everyday life, e.g.: We love our mothers. Children go to school at the age of 6. 'They call me Nancy', said the girl. I know him well (Stative action). The verbs in the present simple may often be accompanied by adverbs of frequency such as often, sometimes, usually, seldom, never, etc., indicating habitual action. The main indicator of the English verb forms in the present simple is the opposite 'live | live - s'. As has been mentioned above Past simple denotes an action which happened at a definite time before the moment of speech. Definite time of the action may be clarified by means of such time expressions as 'yesterday, last week, two years ago, when I was a child, etc. The main indicator of the verb form in the past simple of the English verbs is the formant '-ed' (for the regular verbs) and the change of the root vowels (or consonants) for the irregular verbs, e.g.; live - d, help - ed, give - gave, send-sent. (As to the verb forms in Uzbek see the table in the chapter dealing with the category of person.).
The verbs in the future simple, as has been mentioned above, indicate the action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech. The main indicators of the future action is the auxiliaries - will (shall), and going to 'which usually precede the infinitive, e.g.: Give me your suitcase, please, I will carry it for you. I'm going to visit my grandfather on Sunday.
Present Continuous denotes an action happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech. In English the predicate verb is formed by means of the auxiliary verb (Be - Participle I.) of the notional verb which corresponds to the Uzbek verb forms in the example of the verb 'bor':
I person
Singular
-ayapman
-mokdaman

Plural
-ayapmiz

-mokdamiz

II person

Singular
-ayapsan
-mokdasan

Plural
-ayapsiz

-mokdasiz

III person

Singular
-ayapti -mokda

Plural
-ayaptilar

-mokdalar
-ishmokda

The Present Continuous express three ideas; 1) an activity happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech. Ex.: It is raining. The child is crying. They are looking at you. 2) an activity happening around now, but perhaps not at the moment of speech. Ex.: I'm reading a very interesting book on astrology these days. 3) a planned future arrangement. Ex.: I'm leaving for London next week;

Past Continuous of the English verb is formed by means of the combination of 'was (were) ~ PI of the notional verb and denotes an action happening (in progress) at a definite time in the past. Definite time may be expressed by means of time expressions or by a clause of time connected to the participle I with the conjunctions while and when. In Uzbek in the past continuous the verbs may take the suffixes. E.g.: I was having a shower when you rang me up (at seven o'clock). Compare: I was doing my homework at 7.00 last night (Past Continuous - I was in the middle of the action).
b) I did my homework last night (Past Simple - I started and finished) Future Continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary 'will (or shall) be - PI of the notional verb and expresses an action in progress at a definite time after the moment of speech. E.g.: I shall be waiting for you at the arrival hall at 12 o'clock (when your plane arrives at the airport).
As is seen from this example, Uzbek future continuous is expressed with the help of the suffix '-yotgan' and auxiliary verb bo‘lmoq. Perfect aspect denotes an action that has happened before now. Present Perfect relates past actions and states to the present. It looks back from the present into the past and expresses a completed action up to the present moment. E.g.: I've travelled a lot in Africa. It can also express an action or state which be.an in the past and continues to the present. Present Perfect Continuous is used to express an action which continues to the present.
Self-control questions
What are primary grammatical categories?
What are secondary grammatical categories?
What do you understand by "sems"?
What do you understand by "marked/non-marked morphemes"?
What is synthetico-agglutinated.
What is synthetico-inflected?