1. What metabolic processes are used in industry?
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1. What metabolic processes are used in industry? The chemical industry is one of the heavy industries, with various types of chemical products: mining and chemical raw materials, basic chemical products (ammonia, inorganic acids, alkalis, mineral fertilizers, soda, chlorine and chlorine products, liquefied gases, etc.), plastic. and synthetic tars, including caprolactam, cellulose acetates, chemical fibers and yarns, materials and articles from plastics and glass-plastics, lacquer materials, synthetic paints, chemical reagents, photochemical products, household chemical goods, etc. produces . The transformation of K.S. into an independent industrial network is connected with an industrial revolution. Sulfuric acid i. Ch. The first factories were established in 1740 in Great Britain (Richmond), in 1766 in France (Rouen), in 1805 in Russia (Moscow province), in 1810 in Germany (near Leipzig). Metabolism or metabolism is a set of chemical changes that ensure the growth, life activity, reproduction, and relationships with the external environment of living organisms. Due to the exchange of substances, the molecules that are part of the cell are broken down and synthesized, cell structures and intercellular substances are formed, destroyed and renewed. For example, in humans, half of all tissue proteins are broken down and regenerated in about 80 days; half of the proteins in the liver and blood serum are renewed every 10 days, muscle proteins in 180 days, and some liver enzymes every 2-4 hours. Metabolism is closely related to energy metabolism, and they cannot be separated from each other. Metabolism in cells and energy exchange takes place with the participation of biological catalysts - enzymes. Potential energy, which exists in the form of chemical bonds in complex organic molecules during energy exchange, is transformed into energy that can be used for maintaining cell structure and function, body temperature, work and other processes due to chemical changes. Metabolism consists of two simultaneous and interrelated processes in the cell - anabolism and catabolism. In catabolic processes, complex molecules are broken down into simple molecules and a large amount of energy is released. This energy is stored in the form of special chemical energy-rich macroergic bonds, mainly adenosine triphosphate acid (ATF) and other molecules. Catabolic changes usually occur as a result of hydrolytic and oxidation reactions. These reactions occur without oxygen (anaerobic pathway - glycolysis, digestion) and with oxygen (aerobic pathway - respiration). The second pathway is evolutionarily younger and more energetically efficient, in which organic matter is completely decomposed into SO2 and water. 2. What is substance giving? Matter is a set of particles with mass at rest; elementary particles with a total rest mass not equal to zero (mainly electrons, protons, and neutrons). matter exists as a gas, liquid, solid, and plasma. Matter is one of the main forms of matter. As a result of the development of quantum mechanics, electrodynamics and physics of elementary particles, it was also discovered that physical reality is in a form other than matter - in the form of a field. In chemistry, it is accepted to divide matter into simple substances consisting of atoms of one chemical element and complex substances made up of chemical compounds.[1] Substances exist in 3 states. They are solid, liquid and gas Aggregate states of matter - solid, liquid and gas states of the same substance (copper, water, iron, sulfur, etc.). The solid state of most substances has a crystalline structure. Copper, almost all minerals, and all metals are crystalline in their solid state. The solid state of some substances has an amorphous structure, and such a body can be considered a supercooled liquid. Most substances are likely to exist in 3 aggregate states. If the solid state of a substance consists of a crystal, its transition from one state to another occurs at a specific temperature and pressure, and during these transitions, physical quantities such as density, free energy, and entropy change by leaps and bounds. Copper, water crystallizes into ice at normal pressure (r= 101325 Pa) and 0° temperature; and at normal pressure and temperature of 100°, it boils and turns into steam. The aggregate state of a substance depends on either the energy of interconnection of the molecules in it, or the kinetic energy of their chaotic motion. Since the distance between the molecules that make up the gas is very large, the forces of attraction between them are not taken into account. Therefore, since the gas does not have a definite shape and a definite volume, it occupies the entire volume of the vessel in which it stands and acquires the shape of the vessel. Due to the close proximity of molecules in liquids, each molecule interacts with neighboring molecules around it. These molecules oscillate around the equilibrium state in the so-called stationary state for a certain period of time, moving from time to time to a distance equal to the distance close to their size, and occupying a new equilibrium state. In this way, the liquid molecules begin to move randomly in size. As a result, despite having a definite volume, the liquid cannot maintain a certain shape and takes the shape of the part of the container it occupies. The properties of a liquid depend on the contributions of the continuous chaotic motion of the molecules that make it up and the forces of interaction between the molecules. 3. Explain the rule of phases? 4 The rule of phases. Phase, component and system degrees of freedom In 1873-1878, V. Gibbs proposed the rule of phases based on the I and II laws of thermodynamics to characterize equilibria in multiphase heterogeneous systems. 5) The part of the system that is separated from other parts of the system by boundary surfaces and differs in thermodynamic properties is called a phase. 6) A phase is a homogeneous part of a heterogeneous system consisting of one substance or a mixture of several substances. 7) Each system consists of one or more substances, and these substances are called components of the system. The components of the system are chemically homogeneous substances and can stand apart for a long time. 8) Independent components of the system are called components. Components can be simple or complex substances. For example: salt and water are ingredients. A solution of salt in water is a two-component system. 9) The smallest number of substances sufficient to characterize the chemical composition of each phase in the system is called the number of independent components or components of the system. 10) To find the number of components in a chemical system, it is necessary to subtract the number of chemical reactions occurring under these conditions from the number of components in the system. 11) The number of independent variables sufficient to fully characterize the thermodynamic state of a given system is called the degree of freedom of the system. The number of parameters that can be changed arbitrarily within a given limit is the number of degrees of freedom of the system. 12) The rule of phases 13) The number of phases in a system consisting of K components is equal to the degree of freedom of the system with F. The sum of F is the number of components of the system - K plus two, i.e. 14) F + F = K + 2 15) F is the degree of freedom of the system 16) F = K - F + 2Demak, murakkab sistemalarda erkinlik darajasini topish uchun komponentlar sonidan fazalar sonini ayirib, qoldiqqa ikkini qo’shish kerak. Bosim The balance of phases for systems consisting of condensed, i.e., solid and liquid phases with low impact: F =K – F + 1. 20) Balanced systems are divided into one-component, two-component, etc., depending on the number of components. 21) An example of a one-component system is water. This system is three-phase: ice, water, steam. The connection between temperature and pressure in such a rotation of phases is expressed by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. 22) 23) Here: Q is the heat of transformation of one phase into another phase, 24) V2 is the volume of the phase that is stable at a higher temperature, V1 is the volume of the phase that is stable at a lower temperature, 25) T is the equilibrium temperature of two phases. 26) A homogeneous mixture of metals in a liquid state or a product formed from the solidification of this mixture is called an alloy. 27) Among all alloys made of certain metals, the alloy that hardens at the lowest temperature is called eutectic. 28) Now we will consider the cases where two substances form a solid solution with each other, i.e. they are infinitely soluble in each other both in the liquid state and in the solid state. In order for two substances to form a mutual solid solution, simple particles (molecules, atoms or ions) of one substance must be able to exchange places in its crystal lattice with particles of the other substance or enter the empty spaces in the crystal lattice of the second substance. they form mixed crystals. In such systems, since the particles of one substance replace the particles of another substance, the solid phase forms a homogeneous system. 29) All solid solutions are divided into two: 30) 1) with settlement (absorption); ) 2) by taking place. 4). Turbulent diffusion and molecular diffusion coefficients what is the difference between? Diffusion (Latin: diffusio - absorption, spreading) is spontaneous transfer of one substance to another substance, absorption of one substance into another as a result of disordered thermal movement of molecules, atoms, ions and colloidal particles. Diffusion occurs in gases, liquids or solids, and the rate depends on the density and viscosity of the substance, temperature, nature of the diffusing particle, etc. depends on k. Diffusion accelerates as the temperature rises. Diffusion in a single mixture system (one substance) is called self-diffusion, Diffusion in a multi-mixed system (gas, liquid or solid solutions) is called heterodiffusion. Diffusion is of great importance in the fields of science and technology; In chemistry, the diffusion method is used to determine the molecular weight of a solute. Diffusion is important in biology in the absorption and absorption of nutrients and the release of metabolic products. In the technique, it is used in the preparation of leather, gas painting, cementation and nitriding of metals, and formation of protective coatings on metals. In geology, Diffusion refers to the spread of substances from solid to liquid, from hot to cold, from wet to dry. Diffusion plays an important role in the search for mineral deposits. As a result of diffusion, primary and secondary areal (places) of ores are formed in places where there are deposits. These, in turn, are the main factors in the search for mineral deposits. Molecules (atoms) in physics. In addition to diffusion, conduction electrons, holes, neutrons, etc. Particles Diffusion is also studied. During the process of diffusion, molecules of the substance move from higher to lower concentrations until the concentration of the substance is equalized over the entire area. In this process, energy is not consumed. Molecules can move through the cell cytosol as a result of diffusion. Some molecules can move through the plasma membrane .in addition, each molecule has a small concentration gradient through which they diffuse. For example, if oxygen enters a cell as a result of diffusion, carbon dioxide will leave this cell as a result of oxygen saturation. The simplest form of transport of substances through the membrane is passive transport. Passive transport does not require the cell to expend any energy and substances are transported due to the concentration gradient on both sides of the membrane. A concentration gradient is a place where molecules of a substance naturally diffuse from a place of high concentration to a place of low concentration, where the concentration of a substance changes. In a cell, some molecules can cross the membrane's lipid layer directly down the concentration gradient, while others can pass through a process known as facilitated diffusion with the help of proteins in the membrane. Below we take a closer look at the different methods of membrane permeability and passive transport. 5). Write the equation of the substance giving process? The basic equation of mass transfer The process of transition of a substance from one phase to another through a separating surface is a process of substance transfer is called Mass transfer is a complex process and occurs on both sides of a phase-separating surface the giving substance is composed of giving processes. In Fig. 24.1, liquid and gas (steam) or a scheme explaining the process of substance transfer between two liquids is shown. The phases are moves at a certain speed relative to each other, i.e. in a turbulent mode, and is a moving separator has a surface. A diffusing substance (for example, ammonia) passes from the gas phase (F ) to the liquid phase (F). For example, gas as a phase we get a mixture of ammonia with air, and as a liquid phase we get water. In the gas phase the diffusible substance concentration is higher than the equilibrium concentration. F from the center of the phase through the process of transferring ammonia to the separating surface and from the separating surface to the center of the phase will pass. The separating surface also resists the transfer process. 25). How is the material balance of the absorption process determined? Absorption (from the Latin absorbio - absorption, absorbeo - to swallow) is the volumetric absorption of substances (absorbates) in a solution or gas mixture into solids or liquids (absorbents). Absorption of gases into liquids is used in oil refining, coke-benzene and other industries. Based on the difference in solubility of gases in vapors and liquids, absorption is used in technology for purification and separation of gases and their separation from vapor-gas mixtures. The opposite process to absorption is called desorption, which is used to separate the absorbed gas from the solution and regenerate the absorbent. Absorption process. Gas and steam - one or more components in gas mixtures the process of selective absorption in liquid is called absorption. Swallowed gas is absorbent, absorbent liquid is called absorbent. To the interaction between absorbent and absorbent absorption process is of two types: physical absorption and chemical absorption (chemosorption). In physical absorption, absorbed gas and absorbent are mutual does not combine chemically with If the absorbed gas interacts with the absorbent, if it forms a chemical compound, it is called chemical absorption (chemosorption). Absorbed as a result of continuous absorption and desorption processes clean extraction of the gas and reuse of absorbent absorbent several times opportunity arises. Because absorbent and absorbent are cheap and secondary products, they it is often not reused after the absorption process. In industry, the absorption process is used for various purposes: 1) extracting valuable components from gas mixtures; 2) to clean the components from various toxic substances; 3) receiving finished products and so on. An appropriate absorbent is selected for each specific condition; its absorption in this the solubility of the necessary component in the absorbent is taken into account. The solubility of gases in liquid absorbents depends on the following factors depends on: 1) physical and chemical properties of gas and liquid phases; 2) temperature; 3) the pressure of the gas in the mixture. 44.) Industrial use of liquid driving process. Driving and rectification of liquids. Such processes liquid homogeneous mixtures using the liquid flow and the interaction with the steam formed during the evaporation of the mixture based on separation into components. Interaction of components between liquid and vapor phases The process of separating liquid mixtures by exchange is called driving. This is the process under the influence of heat, it is carried out in two different ways: simple distillation (distillation) and complex distillation (rectification). In industry, rectification is the separation of liquid mixtures into components, ultrapure used for receiving liquids and other purposes. Extraction of liquids. Another that selectively affects a substance dissolved in a liquid the process of separation using a liquid is called extraction. One or the other in such a process how many components pass from one liquid phase to another liquid phase. perform the extraction process depends on the correct choice of solvent. The solvent must not mix with the liquid mixture or otherwise, it may be partially mixed. the density of the solvent must be extracted Theoretical foundations of driving and rectification processes The most common methods used to separate homogeneous liquid mixtures consisting of two or more volatile components are extraction and rectification. Driving and rectification processes are widely used in chemical, food and other industries. For example, it is used in the production of technical and food ethyl alcohols, aromatic substances, and for coarse separation of mixtures. A rectification process is used to separate too much. Driving and rectification processes are based on different volatilities of mixture components at the same temperature. A component with high volatility is called lightly volatile, and a component with low volatility is called hard volatile. Therefore, a light volatile component boils at a higher temperature than a difficult volatile one. Therefore, they are called pats and high-temperature components. In the process of driving or rectification, the initial mixture is separated into a dicillate enriched with a light volatile component and a cubic residue enriched with a difficult volatile component. As a result of condensing the steam generated in the process of driving in the condenser - deflegmator, dicillate is obtained. And in the cube of the device - a cube remains. The simplest mixture consists of 2 components and is called a binary mixture. The number of degrees of freedom of a binary mixture is equal to: where K is the number of components; F is the number of phases. The state of the system is determined by three independent parameters: pressure r, temperature t and concentration x. If the desired two parameters are selected, it is not difficult to determine the third. So, the balance line can be represented by two variable parameters, i.e. r and x, t and x, r and t, x and u. It is known that liquid mixtures differ greatly in their physico-chemical characteristics. Depending on the mutual solubility of the components, binary mixtures can be divided into 3 groups: - components are infinitely soluble compounds; - mixtures whose components are not mutually soluble; - components are partially soluble compounds. In turn, mixtures of infinitely soluble components are divided into ideal and real solutions. 58). Tell me the working principle of the nozzle column? Download 23.4 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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