0 The first technological revolution
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#Bismillah 0 The first technological revolution A. Advances in Metallurgy B. New complex political and social structures C. Academic scepticism D. Influence on western cultures E. Cultural activity F. The birth of civilization G. Challenges as the causes of development H. Development of cities 0 Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., significant technological developments began to transform the Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new level of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered that metal- bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy metals, which could then be cast in moulds to produce tools and weapons that were more useful than stone instruments. 1. Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools, after 4000 B.C. craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its widespread use has led historians to call the period the Bronze Age ; thereafter, from around 3000 to 1200 B.C., bronze was increasingly replaced by iron. 2. At first, Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, more complex human societies emerged. As wealth increased, these societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of people in the river valleys of Southwest Asia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for human life. 3. As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups that developed a simple culture that enabled them to survive. As human societies grew and developed greater complexity, a new form of human existence — called civilization- came into being. A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements. historians have identified a number of basic characteristics of civilization, most of which are evident in the Southwest Asian and Egyptian civilizations. 4. These include ( 1) an urban focus: cities became the centers of political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development ; ( 2) new political and military structures: an organized government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing population while armies were organized to gain land and power and for defense ; ( 3) a new social structure based on economic power: while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free people ( farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and at the very bottom, socially, a class of slaves. 5. The development of writing was a milestone in the evolution of these societies: kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep records ; As a consequence of this, the spread of new forms of significant artistic and intellectual activity: monumental architectural structures, usually religious, occupied a prominent place in urban environments. 6. Why early civilizations developed remains difficult to explain. Since civilizations developed independently in India, China, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, can general causes be identified that would explain why all of these civilizations emerged? A number of possible explanations of the beginning of civilization have been suggested. A theory of challenge and response maintains that challenges forced human beings to make efforts that resulted in the rise of civilization. Some scholars have adhered to a material explanation. 7. Material forces, such as the growth of food surpluses, made possible the specialization of labor and development of large communities with bureaucratic organization. But the area of the Fertile Crescent, in which civilization emerged in Southwest Asia, was not naturally conducive to agriculture. Abundant food could be produced only with a massive human effort to carefully manage the water, an effort that created the need for organization and bureaucratic control and led to civilized cities. Finally, some scholars doubt that we are capable of ever discovering the actual causes of early civilization. #BISMILLAH 0 Social media isn't the devil. A Touching up isn't the answer B )The grass is always greener on the other side C) Possible solutions D) Not necessarily a good thing E) Try not to be so shallow F) Different types of inspiration G)An issue for both sexes 0 There has been a lot of talk in recent years about how mainstream media presents unrealistic beauty standards, with images of photoshopped celebrities and skinny fashion models visible everywhere. With our screens full of these influencers, some might say that social media is purely a bad thing regarding body image. The reality, however, is not so black and white, or perhaps there are ways to manage our social media accounts to make you feel happier in your own skin- or, at least, stop feeling worse. 1. In a survey conducted with 200 female university students, women reported that they usually compare their own appearance negatively with friends and with celebrities when browsing Facebook- but not with family members. Experts say that this is because people present a onesided version of their life online. If you know someone well, you'll realise that they are only showing their best side online- but if they are not such a close friend, you might not know this. 2. The type of content you see from people you follow is also important- they are not all equal. Research suggests that" fitspiration" images- typically showing beautiful people doing exercise, or pretending to- might make you more critical of yourself. Another study published this year involved 200 young women who looked at pictures in three categories: body- positive content, photos showing thin women in bikinis, and neutral images of nature. The researchers found that women who looked at body- positive content were more satisfied with their own bodies. 3. But there may be a disadvantage to body- positive images, too: they still focus on bodies. The study found that the women who'd looked at the body- positive photos still ended up objectifying themselves. After looking at the images, the participants were asked to write 10 statements about themselves. The more the statements focused on their appearance, rather than their skills or personality, the higher that participant scored on self- objectification. 4. When people post their own pictures on social media, they often post selfies. In a study last year, two groups of female undergraduates were asked to take a selfie and upload it to social media. One group could only take a single picture and upload it without editing, but the other group was allowed to take as many pictures as they wanted and retouch the selfie using an app. In the end, the study found that all the women felt less less attractive and less confident after posting a selfie- even those who'd been allowed to edit their photos as much as they liked. 5. Most of the research so far has focused on young women, as traditionally they have been the gender and age group most affected by body image concerns. But research including men is starting to show they are also vulnerable. For example, a study discovered that men who look at fitspiration images said they compared their own appearances to others more often, and cared more about having muscles. 6. So, how should you use social media if you don't want to come away feeling bad about your body? here is one tip that should work for everyone: put down your phone! Take a break and immerse yourself in other activities which are not related to appearance and comparing yourself with other people. The next best idea would be to think critically about who you follow. If you find yourself facing an endless stream of appearance- focused photos when you scroll, add some nature or travel into the mix. 7. After all, giving up social media altogether is probably too big of an ask for most people- and the long- term effects of using it are still unclear anyway. But finding inspiring landscapes, delicious food and cute animals to fill your Facebook or Instagram feed might just help you remember that there is more to life than how you look. #Bismillah A' cheeky' and fun global campaign B) Becoming an international cause c) Proposals for the future of the world's climate d) A child's idea for the planet e) A global youth foundation with a democratic structure f) Planning the campaign g) Thebeliefs behind the campaign h) Convincing leaders through actions at large meeting Plant- for- the- Planet 1. The children's initiative Plant- for- the- Planet, first launched in 2007, was brought to life by the then 9- year- old Felix Finkbeiner, who felt inspired to take action following a school report on the climate crisis. While carrying out his research, Felix became aware of Kenyan environmental activist and Nobel Peace laureate Wangari Maathai and her initiative that had led to the planting of 30 million trees over 30 years. By the time he had finished his research project, Felix had developed his own vision of 1 million trees being planted in each country by children around the world. Felix went on to other classes and schools to present his report and his vision. Just a few weeks later, on the 28th of March 2007, the first tree was officially planted. 2. Over the next two years Felix brought the Plant- for- the- Planet initiative to the world. In June 2008, at the UNEP children's conference in Norway, Felix presented his vision. 700 children delegates, from over 105 countries were so inspired that they voted Felix onto the UNEP Junior Board. Felix has since spoken at many important environmental and climatic events. In August 2009 at the UNEP Tunza Children and Youth Conference in Daejeon. South Korea, Plant- for- the- Planet officially progressed into a global children's movement. At this time hundreds of children from 56 different countries committed themselves to join the initiative and work towards planting 1 million trees in their own countries 3. Of particular importance to the children is the conviction that it is most often developing countries that are hit hardest by the consequences of climate change. The children are convinced that a solution for climate justice can only be reached through the implementation of a binding global treaty. Plant- for- the- Planet children have been campaigning tirelessly and the children are also taking action themselves by planting trees. This is viewed both as a practical act, as each tree removes harmful C02 from the atmosphere, and as a pivotal symbolic action for climate justice. 4. On May 4th 2010, 45 children from Plant- for- the- Planet, together with Environmental Ministers from Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Canada, Turkey and Mexico planted the one millionth tree in Germany. This planting initiative was held under the programme heading" Stop Talking. Start Planting", and took place alongside the so- called" Petersburg Climate Dialogue" being held in Bonn. This was also the location where preparations were being made for the climate summit in Cancun. Together with delegates and important participants in the World Climate Change Conference COP 16 in Cancun, December 2010, the children planted another 193 trees. Through this action the children were able to demonstrate to the participating representatives just how important it is that they adopt a global contract for climate justice. 5. If the children were the government leaders, and had to face the big decisions at the next climate summit, they would already have a clear plan of action for the future. On 1st July 2010, the children handed over their" 3- Point- Plan" to 133 embassies in Berlin. They also put forward their challenge to the government leaders to reveal their plans and proposed solutions for the climate crisis and subsequently the procurement of a safe future. Their plan: 1) Carbon to be shipped to the Museum: Zero emissions by 2050. 2) Climate Justice: If you want more carbon you have to pay for it. 3) Planting Trees: If 500 Million trees were planted every year, this would mean an additional 5 million tonnes of CO2 could be removed from the atmosphere. 6. The world- wide slogan for Plant- for- the- Planet is" Stop Talking. Start Planting". The children are adamant in their belief that talking alone does not achieve results and that now is the time for action. This slogan has been adapted into an eye- catching promotion where the children stand along side high profile community members, holding their hand over the respective community member's mouth and face. A number of prominent community members, such as Prince Albert II of Monaco, Gisele Bundchen and Muhammad Yunus, have already participated. 7. Plant- for- the Planet is set up as a worldwide network. The individual clubs are represented by a world- wide board of directors. Children everywhere are able to cast their votes through the internet. The Foundation helps to fund the activities of children worldwide and the board, with an average age of 12, is probably one of the youngest foundation boards in the world. The tenure of a board member is one year and re- election is not allowed. Adults help the children with advice and practical support. #Bismillah A) Origins of Beowulf B) Appeal and Value C) Proud acceptance of his fate D) An anonymous author E) Learning from their predecessors F) The Beowulf manuscript G) Religious influence in Anglo- Saxons H)Advances in weaponry 1. The epic poem Beowulf, written in Old English, is the earliest existing Germanic epic and one of four surviving Anglo- SaХОn manuscripts. Although Beowulf was written by an anonymous Englishman in Old English, the tale takes place in that part of Scandinavia from which Germanic tribes emigrated to England. Beowulf comes from Geatland, the south- eastern part of what is now Sweden. hrothgar, king of the Danes, lives near what is now Leire, on Zealand, Denmark's largest island. The Beowulf epic contains three major tales about Beowulf and several minor tales that reflect a rich Germanic oral tradition of myths, legends, and folklore. 2. The Beowulf warriors have a foot in both the Bronze and Iron Ages. Their mead- halls reflect the wealthy living of the Bronze Age Northmen, and their wooden shields, wood- shafted spears, and bronze- hilted swords are those of the Bronze Age warrior. however, they carry iron- tipped spears, and their best swords have iron or iron- edged blades. Beowulf also orders an iron shield for his fight with a dragon. Iron replaced bronze because it produced a blade with a cutting edge that was stronger and sharper. 3. The Northmen learned how to forge iron in about 500 B.C. Although they had been superior to the European Celts in bronze work, it was the Celts who taught them how to make and design iron work. Iron was accessible everywhere in Scandinavia, usually in the form of" bog- iron" found in the layers of peat in peat bogs. The Beowulf epic also reveals interesting aspects of the lives of the Anglo- SaХОns who lived in England at the time of the anonymous Beowulf poet. The Germanic tribes, including the Angles, the SaХОns, and the Jutes, invaded England from about 450 to 600 A.D. By the time of the Beowulf poet, Anglo- SaХОn society in England was neither primitive nor uncultured. 4. Although the Beowulf manuscript was written in about 1000 A.D., it was not discovered until the seventeenth century. Scholars do not know whЕТher Beowulf is the sole surviving epic from a flourishing Anglo- SaХОn literary period that produced other great epics or whЕТher it was unique even in its own time. Many scholars think that the epic was probably written sometime between the late seventh century and the early ninth century. If they are correct, the original manuscript was probably lost during the ninth- century Viking invasions of Anglia, in which the Danes destroyed the Anglo- SaХОn monasteries and their great libraries. however, other scholars think that the poet's favourable attitude toward the Danes must place the epic's composition after the Viking invasions and at the start of the eleventh century, when this Beowulf manuscript was written. 5. The identity of the Beowulf poet is also uncertain. he apparently was a Christian who loved the pagan heroic tradition of his ancestors and blended the values of the pagan hero with the Christian values of his own country and time. Because he wrote in the Anglian dialect, he probably was either a monk in a monastery or a poet in an Anglo- SaХОn court located north of the Thames River. 6. Beowulf interests contemporary readers for many reasons. First, it is an outstanding adventure story. Grendel, Grendel's mother, and the dragon are marvellous characters, and each fight is unique, action- packed, and exciting. Second, Beowulf is a very appealing hero. he is the perfect warrior, combining extraordinary strength, skill, courage, and loyalty. Like hercules, he devotes his life to making the world a safer place. he chooses to risk death in order to help other people, and he faces his inevitable death with heroism and dignity. Third, the Beowulf poet is interested in the psychological aspects of human behaviour. For example, the Danish hero's welcoming speech illustrates his jealousy of Beowulf. The behaviour of Beowulf's warriors in the dragon fight reveals their cowardice. Beowulf's attitudes toward heroism reflect his maturity and experience, while King hrothgar's attitudes toward life show the experiences of an aged nobleman. 7. Finally, the Beowulf poet exhibits a mature appreciation of the transitory nature of human life and achievement. In Beowulf, as in the major epics of other cultures, the hero must create a meaningful life in a world that is often dangerous and uncaring. he must accept the inevitability of death. he chooses to reject despair ; instead, he takes pride in himself and in his accomplishments, and he values human relationships. #Bismillah Download 441.28 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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