1 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 200 Years Together Russo-Jewish History
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[lxxxiii] V.N. Nikitin, p. 534, 540, 555, 571, 611-616, 659. [lxxxiv] V.N. Nikitin, p. 635, 660-666. [lxxxv] Also*, p. 658-661. [lxxxvi] EE [JE], T 7, p. 756. [lxxxvii] Also, T 16, p. 399. [lxxxviii] Also, T 2, p. 596. [lxxxix] Also, T 5, p. 650. [xc] Also, T 13, p. 606. [xci] Also, T 5, p. 518; T 13, p. 808. [xcii] Also, T 16, p. 251. [xciii] Yu Larin. Evrei i antisemitizm v SSSR [The Jews and Antisemitism in the USSR], p. 36. [xciv] V.N. Nikitin, p. xii-xiii. *xcv+ N.S. Leskov. Evrei v Rossii: Neskol’ko zamechaniy po evreyskomu voprosu *The Jews in Russia: Several Observations on the Jewish Question]. Pg., 1919 [reprint s izd. 1884], p. 61, 63. [xcvi] L.N. Tolstoy o evreyakh / Predisl. O.Ya. Pergamenta [L.N. Tolstoy on the Jews / Foreword O.Ya. Pergamenta], Sankt-PeterburgSt. Petersburg.: Vremya [Time], 1908, p. 15. [xcvii] EE [JE], T 15, p. 492. [xcviii] I. Orshanskiy, p. 71-72, 95-98, 106-107, 158-160. [xcix] EE [JE], T 13, p. 646. [c] I.M. Dizhur. Evrei v ekonomicheskoy zhizni Rossii [The Jews in the Economic Life of Russia] // KRE-1, p. 168; EE [JE], T 13, p.662. *ci+ L. Deych. Rol’ evreyev…*The Role of the Jews..+, T 1, p. 14-15. [cii] EE [JE], T 13, p. 647, 656-658, 663-664; G.B. Sliozberg, T 3, p. 93; KEE [SJE], T 7, p. 337. [ciii] M.A. Aldanov. Russkie evrei v 70-80-kh godakh: Istoricheskiy etyud [The Russian Jews in the 1870-1880s: An Historical Essay] // KRE-1, p. 45-46. [civ] G.B. Sliozberg, T 1, p. 141-142. [cv] KEE [SJE], T 7, p. 328, 331. [cvi] EE [JE], T 7, p. 762. [cvii] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 168. [cviii] Also, p. 168. [cix] Also, p. 206. 70
[cx] EE [JE], T 6, p. 712, 715-716. [cxi] Also, T 13, p. 618. [cxii] KRE-1, Predislovie [Foreword], p. iii-iv. *cxiii+ Y.L. Teytel’. Iz moey zhizni za 40 let *From My Life of 40 Years+. Paris: Y. Povolotskiy and Company, 1925, p. 15.
[cxiv] I.M. Trotskiy. Evrei v russkoy shkole [The Jews in Russian School] // KRE-1, p. 354. [cxv] Yu. Gessen. T 2, p. 179. *cxvi+ L. Deych. Rol’ evreyev…, T 1, p. 14. [cxvii] EE [JE]*, T 13, p. 48. [cxviii] Also, p. 49. [cxix] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 179. [cxx] EE [JE], T 13, p. 48. [cxxi] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 208 [cxxii] KEE [SJE], T 7, p. 333. [cxxiii] M.A. Aldanov // KRE-1, p. 45. [cxxiv] I.M. Trotskiy. Evrei v russkoy shkole [The Jews in Russian Schools] // KRE-1, p. 355-356. [cxxv] EE [JE], T 13, p. 50. [cxxvi] I.M. Trotskiy. Evrei v russkoy shkole [The Jews in Russian Schools] // KRE-1, p. 355-356. [cxxvii] EE [JE], T 13, p. 618. *cxxviii+ G.Ya. Aronson. V bor’be za grazhdanskie i natsional’nie prava: Obshchestvennie techeniya v russkom evreystve [In the Struggle for Civil and National Rights: Social Currents in Russian Jewry] // KRE-1, p. 207. [cxxix] Yu. Gessen. T 2, p. 178, 180. [cxxx] Ya.G. Frumkin. Iz istorii russkogo evreystva: Vospominaniya, materiali, dokumenti [From the History of Russian Jewry: Memoirs, Materials, and Documents] // KRE-1, p. 51. [cxxxi] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 180. [cxxxii] EE [JE], T 1, p. 823. [cxxxiii] Yu Gessen*, T 2, p. 205. [cxxxiv] Also, p. 170. [cxxxv] Also, p. 200-201. [cxxxvi] KEE [JEE], T 1, p. 532.
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[cxxxvii] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 200-201. [cxxxviii] EE [JE], T 4, p. 918. [cxxxix] KEE [SJE], T 1, p. 532. [cxl] Rossiyskaya Evreyskaya Entsiklopediya [The Russian Jewish Encyclopedia] (henceforth REE). Moscow, 1994–…T 1, p. 164. [cxli] Yu. Gessen. T 2, p. 200-201. [cxlii] EE [JE], T 4, p. 918, 920. [cxliii] KEE [SJE], T 1, p. 532. [cxliv] REE [RJE], T 1, p. 164. [cxlv] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 202. [cxlvi] Also*, p. 202-203. [cxlvii] S.M. Sliozberg. O russko-evreyskoy intelligentsia [On the Russo-Jewish Intelligentsia] // Evreyskiy mir: Ezhegodnik na 1939g. [Jewish World: Yearbook for 1939] (henceforth—EM-1 [JW-1+). Paris: Ob’edinenie russko-evreyskoy intelligentsia [Association of the Russo-Jewish Intelligentsia], p. 34. [cxlviii] EE [JE], T 3, p. 334. [cxlix] Yudl. Mark. Literatura na idish v Rossii [Literature in Yiddish in Russia] // KRE-1, p. 521; G.Ya. Aronson. Russko-Evreyskaya pechat’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // Also, p. 548. [cl] B. Orlov. Ne te vi uchili alfaviti // Vremya i mi: Mezhdunarodniy zhurnal literature i obshchestvennikh problem (henceforth-VM). Tel’-Aviv, 1975, No1, p. 130. [cli] M. Osherovich. Russkie evrei v Soedinennikh Shtatakh Ameriki [Russian Jews in the United States of America] // KRE-1, p. 289-290. [clii] S.M. Sliozberg // EM-1, p. 35. *cliii+ G.Ya. Aronson*. V bor’be za…*In the Struggle for…+ // KRE-1, p 210. [cliv] S. Shvarts. Evrei v Sovetskom Soyuze c nachala Vtoroy mirovoy voyni. 1939-1965 [The Jews in the Soviet Union from the Start of the Second World War. 1939-1965]. New York: Amerikanskiy evreyskiy rabochiy komitet [American Jewish Workers Committee], 1966, p. 290. [clv] I.M. Bikerman. K samopoznaniyu evreya: Chem mi bili, c hem mi stali, chem mi dolzhni bit’. *What We Were, What We Became, and What We Should Be]. Paris, 1939, p. 48. *clvi+ K. Leytes. Pamyati M.A. Krolya *The Memoirs of M.A. Krol’+ // Evreyskiy mir *Jewish World+: Anthology 2 (henceforth EM-2 [JW-2]). New York: Soyuz russkikh evreyev v N’yu Yorke *Union of Russian Jews in New York+, 1944, p. 408-411. [clvii] EE [JE], T 13, p. 59. *clviii+ I.M. Trotskiy. Samodeyatel’nost’…*Individual Initiative…+ // KRE-1, p. 471-474. [clix] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 172.
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[clx] EE [JE]*, T 3, p. 335. [clxi] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 170. [clxii] Also, p. 171. [clxiii] G.Ya. Aronson*. Russko-Evreyskaya pechat’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // KRE-1, p. 562. [clxiv] S.M. Ginzburg* // EM-1 [JW-1], p. 36. [clxv] Yu. Gessen*, T 2, p. 173. [clxvi] Also*, p. 174. [clxvii] Also, p. 174-175. [clxviii] EE [JE], T 3, p. 480. [clxix] M.A. Aldanov // KRE-1, p. 44. [clxx] G.Ya. Aronson*. Russko-evreyskaya pechat’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // KRE-1, p. 558-561. *clxxi+ M. Krol’. Natsionalizm i assimilyatsiya v evreyskoy istorii [Nationalism and Assimilation in Jewish History] // EM-1 [JW-1], p. 188-189. [clxxii] James Parkes. The Jew and his Neighbor: a Study of the Causes of anti -Semitism. Paris: YMCA-Press, 1932, p. 41. [clxxiii] Yu Gessen, T 2, p. 198. [clxxiv] Also. [clxxv] Also, p. 177. [clxxvi] EE [JE], T 13, p. 638. [clxxvii] G.Ya. Aronson. Russko-Evreyskaya pechat’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // KRE-1, p. 551. [clxxviii] KEE [SJE], T 6, p. 117. [clxxix] Also, p. 117-118. [clxxx] Also, p. 118. [clxxxi] K. Itskovich. Odessa-khlebniy gorod [Odessa—City of Bread] // Novoe russkoe slovo [The New Russian Word], New York, 1984, 21 March, p. 6. [clxxxii] EE [JE], T 3, p. 334-335. [clxxxiii] Also*, T 13, p. 638. *clxxxiv+ G.Ya. Aronson. V bor’be za…*In the Struggle for…+ // KRE-1, p. 207. [clxxxv] KEE [SJE], T 6, p. 692-693. [clxxxvi] EE, T 11, p. 894.
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[clxxxvii] KEE [SJE], T 2, p. 510. *clxxxviii+ V.S. Mandel’. Konservativnie i razrushitel’nie elemente v evreystve *Conservative and Destructive Elements in Jewry] // Rossiya i evrei: Sb. 1 [Russia and the Jews: Anthology 1 (henceforth—RiE [RandJ]) / Otechestvennoe obedinenie russkikh evreyev za granitsey [The Patriotic Union of Russian Jews Abroad]. Paris: YMCA-Press, 1978 [1st Publication—Berlin: Osnova, 1924], p. 195. [clxxxix] I.M. Trotskiy. Evrei v russkoy shkole [The Jews in Russian Schools] // KRE-1, p. 356. *cxc+ V.S. Mandel’ // RiE *RandJ+, p. 195. *cxci+ Ya. Teytel’. Iz moey zhizni…*From My Life…+, p. 239. [cxcii] See.: EE [JE], T 3, p. 335; and others. [cxciii] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 208. [cxciv] EE [JE], T 3, p. 335. [cxcv] B. Orlov // VM, 1975, No1, p. 132. [cxcvi] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 181. *cxcvii+ G.Ya. Aronson. V bor’be za…*In the Struggle for…+ // KRE-1, p. 208-209. [cxcviii] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 198-199. [cxcix] EE [JE], T 3, p. 336. [cc] Yu. Gessen, T 2, p. 232-233. [cci] S.M. Ginzburg. Nastroeniya evreyskoy molodezhi v 80-kh godakh proshlogo stoletiya. // EM-2, p. 380. [ccii] G.Ya. Aronson. Russko-evreyskaya pechat’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // KRE-1, p. 561-562. [cciii] EE [JE], T 1, p. 932; KEE [SJE], T 1, p. 103. [cciv] EE [JE], T 1, p. 945-950. [ccv] Also, p. 948-950. [ccvi] Also*, T 2, p. 742. [ccvii] Also, T 1, p. 933-936. [ccviii] EE [JE], T 1, p. 950-951; I.S. Aksakov. Soch. [Essays].: V7 T Moscow., 1886-1887. T 3, p. 843-844. [ccix] EE [JE], T 2, p. 738. [ccx] Also, p. 738-739. [ccxi] Also, T 1, p. 948-949. *ccxii+ A.I. Denikin. Put’ russkogo ofitsera *The Path of a Russian Officer+. New York: Publisher -named-Chekov, 1953, p. 284. [ccxiii] EE [JE], T 13, p. 50-51. 74
[ccxiv] G.Ya. Aronson. Russko-evreyskaya pechet’ *Russo-Jewish Press] // KRE-1, p. 558. [ccxv] EE [JE], T 12, p. 525-526. [ccxvi] EE [JE]*, T 2, p. 736, 740. [ccxvii] Golos [The Voice], 1881, No46, 15 (27) February, p. 1. [ccxviii] EE [JE], T 2, p. 740. [ccxix] Also, T 4, p. 246, 594. [ccxx] G.B. Sliozberg, T 1, p. 99.
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Chapter 5: After the murder of Alexander II The murder of the Tsar-Liberator, Alexander II, shocked the people’s consciousness – something the Narodovol’tsi intended, but that has been intentionally or unintentionally ignored by historians with the passing of decades. The deaths of heirs or tsars of the previous century – Aleksei Petrovich, Ivan Antonovich, Peter III, and Paul – were violent, but that was unknown to the people. The murder of March 1st, 1881, caused a panic in minds nationwide. For the common people, and particularly for the peasant masses it was as if the very foundations of their lives were shaken. Again, as the Narodovol’tsi calculated, this could not help but invite some explosion. And an explosion did occur, but an unpredictable one: Jewish pogroms in Novorossiya and Ukraine. Six weeks after the regicide, the pogroms of Jewish shops, institutions, and homes “suddenly engulfed a vast territory, with tremendous, epidemic force.”*1+ “Indeed, it was rather spontaneous. … Local people, who, for the most different reasons desired to get even with the Jews, posted incendiary posters and organized basic cadres of pogromists, which were quickly joined by hundreds of volunteers, who joined without any exhortation, caught up in the generally wild atmosphere and promise of easy money. In this there was something spontaneous. However, … even the crowds, fueled by alcohol, while committing theft and violence, directed their blows in one direction only: in the direction of the Jews – the unruliness only stopping at the thresholds of Christian homes.”*2+ The first pogrom occurred in Elizavetgrad, on 15 April. “Disorder intensified, when peasants from the neighboring settlements arrived, in order to profit off the goods of the Jews.” At first the military did not act, because of uncertainty; finally “significant cavalry forces succeeded in ending the pogrom.”*3+ “The arrival of fresh forces put an end to the pogrom.”*4+ “There was no rape and murder in this pogrom.”*5+ According to other sources: “one Jew was killed. The pogrom was put down on 17 April by troops, who fired into the crowd of thugs.”*6+ However, “from Elizavetgrad the stirring spread to neighboring settlements; in the majority of cases, the disorders were confined to plundering of taverns.” And after a week, a pogrom occurred in the Anan’evskiy Uezd *district+ of Odessa Guberniya *province+, then in Anan’ev itself, “where it was caused by some petty bourgeois, who spread a rumor that the Tsar was killed by Jews, and that there was an official order for the massacre of Jews, but the authorities were hiding this.”*7+ On 23 April there was a brief pogrom in Kiev, but it was soon stopped with military forces. However, in Kiev on 26 April a new pogrom broke out, and by the following day it had spread to the Kiev suburbs – and this was the largest pogrom in the whole chain of them; but they ended without human fatalities.”*8+ (Another tome of the same Encyclopedia reports the opposite, that “several Jews were killed.”*9+)
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After Kiev, pogroms took place again in approximately fifty settlements in the Kiev Guberniya, during which “property of the Jews was subjected to plunder, and in isolated cases battery occurred.” At the end of the same April a pogrom took place in Konotop, “caused mainly by workers and railroad hands, accompanied by one human fatality; in Konotop there were instances of self-defense from the Jewish side.” There was still an echo of the Kiev Pogrom in Zhmerinka, in “several settlements of Chernigov Guberniya;” at the start of May, in the small town of Smel, where “it was suppressed with arriving troops the next day” (“an apparel store was plundered”). With echoes in the course of May, at the start of summer pogroms still broke out in separate areas in Ekaterinoslav and Poltava guberniyas (Aleksandrovsk, Romni, Nezhin, Pereyaslavl, and Borisov). Insignificant disorders took place somewhere in Melitopol Uezd. There were cases, when peasants immediately compensated Jews for their losses.”*10+ “The pogrom movement in Kishinev, which began on 20 April, was nipped in the bud.”*11+ There were no pogroms in all of Byelorussia – not in that year, nor in the following years,[12] although in Minsk a panic started among the Jews during rumors about pogroms in the Southwestern Krai – on account of a completely unexpected occurrence.[13] And next in Odessa. Only Odessa already knew Jewish pogroms in the 19th Century – in 1821, 1859, and 1871. “Those were sporadic events, caused mainly by unfriendliness toward Jews on the part of the local Greek population,”*14+ that is, on account of the commercial competition of the Jews and Greeks; in 1871 there was a three-day pogrom of hundreds of Jewish taverns, shops, and homes, but without human fatalities. I.G. Orshanskiy writes in more detail about this pogrom, and states, that Jewish property was being intentionally destroyed: heaps of watches from the jewelers – they did not steal them, but carried them out to the roadway and smashed them. He agrees that the “nerve center” of the pogrom was hostility toward the Jews on the part of the Greek merchants, particularly owing to the fact, that after the Crimean War the Odessa Jews took the grocery trade and colonial commodities from the Greeks. But there was “a general dislike toward the Jews on the part of the Christian population of Odessa. … This hostility manifested far more consciously and prominently among the intelligent and affluent class than among the common working people.” You see, however, that different peoples get along in Odessa; “why then did only Jews arouse general dislike toward themselves, which sometimes turns into severe hatred?” One high school teacher explained to his class: “The Jews are engaged in incorrect economic relations with the rest of population.” Orshanskiy objects that such an explanation removes “the heavy burden of moral responsibility.” He sees the same reason in the psychological influence of Russian legislation, which singles out the Jews, namely and only to place restrictions on them. And in the attempt of Jews to break free from restrictions, people see “impudence, insatiableness, and grabbing.”*15+ As a result, in 1881 the Odessa administration, already having experience with pogroms – which other local authorities did not have – immediately put down disorders which were 77
reignited several times, and “the masses of thugs were placed in vessels and dragged away from the shore”*16+ – a highly resourceful method. (In contradiction to the pre-revolutionary, the modern Encyclopedia writes, that this time the pogrom in Odessa continued for three days).[17] The pre-revolutionary Encyclopedia recognizes, that “the government considered it necessary to decisively put down violent attempts against the Jews”;*18+ so it was the new Minister of Interior Affairs, Count N.P. Ignatiev, (who replaced Loris -Melikov in May, 1881), who firmly suppressed the pogroms; although it was not easy to cope with rising disturbances of “epidemic strength” – in view of the complete unexpectedness of events, the extremely small number of Russian police at that time (Russia’s police force was then incomparably smaller than the police forces in the West European states, much less than those in the Soviet Union), and the rare stationing of military garrisons in those areas. “Firearms were used for defense of the Jews against pogromists.”*19+ There was firing in the crowd, and *people+ were shot dead. For example, in Borisov “soldiers shot and killed several peasants.”*20+ Also, in Nezhin “troops stopped a pogrom, by opening fire at the crowd of peasant pogromists; several people were killed and wounded.”*21+ In Kiev 1,400 people were arrested.[22] All this together indicates a highly energetic picture of enforcement. But the government acknowledged its insufficient preparedness. An official statement said that during the Kiev pogrom “the measures to restrain the crowds were not taken with sufficient timeliness and energy.”*23+ In a report to His Majesty in June 1881 the Director of the Police Department, V.K. Plehve, named the fact that courts martial “treated the accused extremely leniently and in general dealt with the matter quite superficially” as “one of the reasons for the development and insufficiently quick suppression of the disorders’” Alexander III made a note in the report: “This is inexcusable.”*24+ But forthwith and later it did not end without accusations, that the pogroms were arranged by the government itself – a completely unsubstantiated accusation, much less absurd, since in April 1881 the same liberal reformer Loris Melikov headed the government, and all his people were in power in the upper administration. After 1917, a group of researchers – S. Dubnov, G. Krasniy-Admoni, and S. Lozinskiy – thoroughly searched for the proof in all the opened government archives – and only found the opposite, beginning with the fact that, Alexander III himself demanded an energetic investigation. (But to utterly ruin Tsar Alexander III’s reputation a nameless someone invented the malicious slander: that the Tsar – unknown to anyone, when, and under what circumstances – said: “And I admit, that I myself am happy, when they beat Jews!” And this was accepted and printed in émigré liberation brochures, it went into liberal folklore, and even until now, after 100 years, it has turned up in publications as historically reliable.[25] And even in the Short Jewish Encyclopedia: “The authorities acted in close contact with the arrivals,”*26+ that is, with outsiders. And it was ‘clear’ to Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana that it was “obvious”: all matters 78
were in the hands of the authorities. If “they wanted one – they could bring on a pogrom; if they didn’t want one – there would be no pogrom.”)*27+ As a matter of fact, not only was there no incitement on the part of the government, but as Gessen points out: “the rise of numerous pogrom brigades in a short time in a vast area and the very character of their actions, eliminates the thought of the presence of a single organizational center.”*28+ And here is another contemporary, living testimony from a pretty much unexpected quarter – from The Black Repartition’s Worker’s Leaflet; that is, a proclamation to the people, in June 1881. The revolutionary leaflet thus described the picture: “Not only all the governors, but all other officials, police, troops, priests, zemstvo [elected district councils], and journalists – stood up for the Kulak-Jews…The government protects the person and property of the Jews”; threats are announced by the governors “that the perpetrators of the riots will be dealt with according to the full extent of the law…The police looked for people who were in the crowd *of pogromists+, arrested them, dragged them to the police station…Soldiers and Cossacks used the rifle butt and the whip…they beat the people with rifles and whips…some were prosecuted and locked up in jail or sent to do hard labor, and others were thrashed with birches on the spot by the police.”*29+ Next year, in the spring of 1881, “pogroms renewed but already not in the same numbers and not in the same scale as in the previous year.”*30+ “The Jews of the city of Balta experienced a particularly heavy pogrom,” riots also occurred in the Baltskiy Uezd and still in a few others. “However, according to the number of incidents, and according to their character, the riots of 1882 were significantly inferior to the movement of 1881 – the destruction of the property of Jews was not so frequent a phenomenon.”*31+ The pre- revolutionary Jewish Encyclopedia reports, that at the time of the pogrom in Balta , one Jew was killed.[32] A famous Jewish contemporary wrote: in the pogroms of the 1880s, “they robbed unlucky Jews, and they beat them, but they did not kill them.”*33+ (According to other sources, 6 – 7 deaths were recorded.) At the time of the 1880 – 1890s, no one remembered mass killings and rapes. However, more than a half-century passed – and many publicists, not having the need to delve into the ancient [official] Russian facts, but then having an extensive and credulous audience, now began to write about massive and premeditated atrocities. For example, we read in Max Raisin’s frequently published book: that the pogroms of 1881 led to the “rape of women, murder, and maiming of thousands of men, women, and children. It was later revealed, that these riots were inspired and thought out by the very government, which had incited the pogromists and hindered the Jews in their self-defense.”*34+ A G.B. Sliozberg, so rationally familiar with the workings of the Russian state apparatus – suddenly declared out-of-country in 1933, that the pogroms of 1881 originated not from below, but from above, with Minister Ignatiev (who at that time was still not Minister – the
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