1. Critical Thinking for Language Learning and Teaching: Methods for the 21st Century

1.2The Realization of Meaning Phase
A growing amount of information becomes an undisputable reality. Therefore, it is easily assumable that the current-time student disposes of a wide range of active and passive knowledge based on previous learning and study as well as observation, experience, individual interests, recollections, feelings and impressions. The evocation phase has been defined as an activating process of existing perceptions within a given topic (Steel 2007c:9). To use any of external resources at this stage is not suitable as it aims at creating only a context for a new content. During this stage, students confront their initial individual as well as collective understanding of questions, dilemmas, terms and notions as they stimulate their curiosity and motivation of the topic. The evocation, frequently underestimated or omitted within the traditional teaching organization, stands as an essential building stone of the learning process within the critical thinking concept as it utilizes the activation of the upper order cognitive functions. Typical evocation techniques include activities that mainly focus on utilization and development of productive communication skills. Students, while organized in pairs or groups of various sizes, cultivate their oral and writing competences through discussions, argumentation, negotiation and presentation. Individual techniques aim at clarifying key words, anticipating or inferring meanings of notions and phrases, formulating value scales, expressing initial attitudes, leading multiple-phase dialogues or brainstorming sessions, and the like (Steel et al. 2007e). initial knowledge and impressions with ex-pending material and resources Material conditions for an efficient evocation include flexible space and mobile class equipment, multiple black-boards or flip-charts, plain paper of varied size and color, multiple markers, data projector, etc. Only after the realization of the evocation phase, the student becomes ready to receive new content. The realization of meaning phase confronts the student’s. ⁶The accent of this stage is to build a new knowledge through qualified evaluation and analysis of data. Typical media carrying content are text, audio or video materials, presentation, visuals, as well as hands-on experience through observation or immersion activities (Steel 2001). This stage admits a mediated use of internet and social media through modern information technologies. While participating in information processing, students predominantly activate their receptive skills. The techniques used for processing information include the I.N.S.E.R.T. or PMI data organizing methods (more in Steel et al. 2007c, Steel et al. 2007d, Steel et al. 2007e), a variety of graphic organizing methods such as mind-mapping, case study analyses, or other techniques of content organizing analysis, such as SWOT, PEST, Binary question, cause and effect, comparative analysis, Porter model, marketing mix, stakeholder model or Potter box method. It is needless to say that through employing analytical thinking students activate their upper order cognitive functions. The critical thinking model describes a series of cooperative teaching techniques that allow the teachers to mediate interactive classroom. They also activate all students regardless the class size at all times. Among the most efficient techniques are reading in pairs, reading with prediction, reciprocal teaching, three-step interview, jigsaw (group reorganizing) learning and other (Steel et al. 2007c; Steel et al. 2007d; Steel et al. 2007e). Thus, in addition to activating the receptive skills through content analysis, the cooperative learning principles enhance productive skills at the same time. To be able to incorporate the interactive components into the instruction, however, the class set-up and equipment need to be flexible so the students can work in groups and change their positions freely. The third, but far not last phase of the critical thinking model represents the key element of the learning chain by aiming at the upper-most cognitive functions. This stage accentuates the development of competencies to integrate the newly acquired knowledge into a wider context and apply it into practices. Students are encouraged to evaluate the new content, formulate own opinions, correct original attitudes, complete initial knowledge, suggest solutions, in other words, become an active participant in current social affairs. During this stage, students activate their productive skills. Unlike the evocation phase, however, the students learn how to formulate their contributions in more complex and advanced oral or composition formats. The newly acquired knowledge is refined or applied through organized debates, simulations, structured presentations, or moderated discussion. Among some of the speaking techniques described by Steel et al. (2007c, 2007d, 2007e) are gallery visit, discussion web, corners, rotating flip, team tour-lament, to name a few. The composition forms include summaries, synthesis, essays, reports, thesis or other. It is needless to say that the reflection phase represents a key stage for meeting the challenges of study and professional environment. As mentioned above, the reflection phase is far not the ultimate component of the learning chain. Its aim is to awake a natural desire for knowledge and motivation for further learning (Steel 2001:8). If applied properly, the critical thinking model leads to further inquiry for resources, that is, back to the realization of meaning. This makes the three-phase model a spiral process. The primary goal of the concept, thus, is to set in motion a perpetual mechanism of learning which would naturally lead to personal growth, expertise, acceleration of science, publishing activities and last but not least professionalization of the job market and social debate.
To reiterate, the learning and teaching concept aimed at the student critical thinking competences, which activate both the receptive and productive skills through a three-phase gradual learning model, appears as an ideal tool for addressing the main challenges of current tertiary education. In reaction to a dramatically changing society and the related evolution of roles in the teacher-student relationship, the concept offers both study techniques to deal with a large amount of information, and modern teaching methods reflecting the character of the era. The methodology provides the teachers with varying forms of cooperative learning techniques that allow them to diverge from the frontal teaching style. The inter-active set-ups through combinations of pair or group work activities allow for a more active involvement of all students into parallel processes. This eliminates attention splits and is a solution for managing groups of various sizes. The character of activities also promotes fertile discussions, problem solving as well as free opinion and idea formations. Finally, it also offers an inspiring, creative and stimulating learning environment with a practical reach into context and practice. From a long-term perspective, this approach contributes to effective and long-lasting retention of knowledge and competences, and motivates for further study. An active, critically thinking and concentrated student is just a logical result.
The three-phase model of critical thinking as described above represents a complex set of methods aimed at a development and professionalization of student study habits as well as innovative teaching techniques. This system while being skill and method oriented becomes flexible enough to be implemented across disciplines throughout the educational ladder. This is to argue that the accent on a balanced development of productive and receptive skills is an optimal format for foreign language teaching. Indeed, during the evocation phase, through discussion, opinion exchange, clarifications of meaning, verbal or oral short presentations, students primarily activate their language productive skills. They practice the existing phonetic, lexical, grammatical or syntactic forms of general, professional or aca-demic language in use. During the realization of meaning, then, the emphasis shifts to receptive skills since the core of the phase is an immersion into a new content through text, audio or video materials, visuals or experience. Students analyze and confront provided material to build on, complete or correct their initial knowledge. Authentic resources linked to existing social and professional reality are the most suitable materials since they contain contextual up-to-date key terms, collocations and language structures. The implementation of the cooperative learning techniques, in addition, secondarily activates the student productive skills, since they engage them into discussions, negotiations of meaning and opinion sharing during the work with the material. ⁷While using the provided key terms and language structures, students fixate a more advanced terminology and language written or oral forms. During the reflection phase, finally, the newly acquired lexical and syntactic structures get refined through the use in context. Students summarize, synthesize, formulate their own positions, suggest solutions to problems or pre-sent their results already, and thus, learn correct structures and formats necessary to master within the university or professional environments. Among the most frequently required oral communication competences which get refined during the last stage are the presentation, argumentation or negotiation skills. Students also learn how to construct the standard written formats, such as, essays, summaries, synthesis, reports, research or project reports, thesis, or business correspondence.