1. English word structure Word formation and its types
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Kurs ishi Gulchiroy
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Contents 1.English word structure 2.Word formation and its types 3.Affix and its types 4.Compound words 5.Conversion and shortening 1.English word structure English words can be simple, productive, and complex. A simple word consists of a root to which morphological inflections can be attached, for example: bed, speaks, tables. It is known that a derivative word is a word in relation to which some derivational act was performed: speaker, unable, to bed. At the same time, the morphological structure of the verb to bed is a simple word and in this sense does not differ from the noun a bed, however, the verb is a product of a derivational act (conversion), and therefore to bed is a derivative word. Thus, the morphological and derivational structures of a word may not coincide both in terms of their articulation and in terms of non-articulation. In this regard, we find very convincing examples in the work of K. V. Piottukh, who writes: “If we compare formations like forbid, forgive, forbear, forget, etc. and formations like pen n. - pen v., hand - hand v., eye - eye v. from the point of view of their morphemic articulation, it turns out that the first group of formations belongs to the articulated: forbid, forbear, etc., the second group - to the non-segmented pen n. - pеn. However, from the point of view of derivation or their derivational articulation, it turns out that formations such as forbid, forbear, forgive, etc., in terms of synchrony, belong to non-derivative and, thus, indivisible, and non-segmented formations of the hand n type. - hand v. to derivatives (conversion) [3, p. 4]. A compound word is a word that is formed as a result of adding two or more stems, such as the following words: blackboard, government-owned. Among the Germanic philologists, it is customary to distinguish also derivative (or complex derivative) words, bearing in mind the complex words to which some derivational act was applied. So, in the book "A course in modern English lexicology" the words a break-down, a castaway, a runaway are considered as derivational compounds. This name (compound derivative word) reflects both the morphological composition of the word (two bases) and the word production act (in this case, conversion). The selection of compound words as a special category can be considered expedient, but it should be borne in mind that from a derivational point of view, dibasic generating words, which serve as the basis for the formation of certain derivatives, do not differ in any way from monobasic ones. For example, for derivational analysis, both bomb v. And atombomb v. are the conversion product of noun and verb. The fact that atombomb is a dibasic productive word does not play any role from the point of view of derivational analysis. Likewise, derivational analysis does not distinguish between the two-base word firstnighter and the one-base Londoner. Both were formed by adding the suffix -er to the stem [10, p. 197]. A word-building element can be attached not only to a monobasic or dibasic word, but also to a phrase, for example, blue-eyed - (blue + eye / s /) + ed. In this case, we can talk about derivative (for example, suffix) words, the basis for which is the phrase. They can distinguish between derivatives from free (long-nosed) and from stable combinations (old-maidish, grass-widowed). The morphological structure of English simple words is not complicated. It is not burdened with morphological indicators of parts of speech, gender, type of declension or conjugation. For example, the English noun bed carries only semantic meaning and indicates a singular number. Here you can still see the meaning of the general case, but this will be a bit of a stretch, since the word bed can hardly have the form of the possessive case. Unlike the English word bed, the Russian word "bed" informs that it is a feminine noun and a certain type of declension. Modern English has only a few inflectional inflections: - plural of a noun - s, - possessive case of a noun - -’s, - third person singular of present tense verbs - -s, - past tense of a verb - -ed. Morphological indicators of conjugation are concentrated in auxiliary verbs, which also simplifies the morphological structure of English words. In other words, in English, the root very often completely materially coincides with the stem of the word. It is also important that a large number of English words are monosyllabic [4, p. 8] The structure of an English word, and with it the problem of its analysis, becomes more complicated as soon as we turn to derived words. Unlike simple words, many English derivatives are labeled in terms of their part of speech, although affix homonyms and part-of-speech conversions significantly reduce the ability of English affixes to indication of parts of speech. The addition of a derivational affix complicates the structure of the English word, but nevertheless it retains its relative simplicity, since the affixation itself, or rather the suffixation, does not introduce any morphological features into the word, except for indicating a part of speech. Compare, for example, the suffixation in German, where the suffix signals that a word belongs to the grammatical gender, hence to a certain type of declension, etc. So, for example, the -er suffix signals the masculine gender, the -schaft suffix - the feminine gender, the -tum suffix - the mean. However, not everything is so simple in the structure of English derivatives. The analysis of their structure is complicated by at least two factors. First, there are a large number of allomorphic forms of derivational affixes, especially suffixes (an allomorph is a phonetic and / or spelling variant of a morpheme). This means that to recognize the suffix and stem, it is not enough to know one form of the suffix, for example -able, but a number of its allomorphs must be represented. For example, the -able suffix is represented by the following allomorphs (spelling only): -able (breakable), -ible (responsible), -ibl (incompatibly), -uble (dissoluble), -abil (advisability), -ubil (dissolubility) [6, p. 33]. Identification of all allomorphs, the nature of the compatibility of suffixes with various types of stems, the distribution of the suffix and other issues are the subject of derivational morphology. The second factor, important for the problems of word formation, is the “distinguishability” of the word-formation affix and, consequently, in the assignment of this or that word to the category of derivatives. This factor for the English language is complicated by the fact that in this language there are a large number of words that have been borrowed along with derivational affixes, especially suffixes (allomorph is a phonetic and / or spelling variant of a morpheme). This means that to recognize the suffix and stem, it is not enough to know one form of the suffix, for example -able, but a number of its allomorphs must be represented. For example, the -able suffix is represented by the following allomorphs (spelling only): -able (breakable), -ible (responsible), -ibl (incompatibly), -uble (dissoluble), -abil (advisability), -ubil (dissolubility) [6, p. 33]. Identification of all allomorphs, the nature of the compatibility of suffixes with various types of stems, the distribution of the suffix and other issues are the subject of derivational morphology. The second factor, important for the problems of word formation, is the “distinguishability” of the word-formation affix and, consequently, in the assignment of this or that word to the category of derivatives. This factor for the English language is complicated by the fact that in this language there are a large number of words that were borrowed along with derivational affixes, but the roots of these words are not have independent use in modern English. Such words function in parallel with words in which, after subtracting the affix, a part remains equal to the full-valued word, for example, the words document and government, capable and readable. This problem in relation to word formation is correctly solved, for example, by G. Marchand, who believes that for word formation the words horror, horrid, horrify; stupor, stupid, stupify are not derived. The words contain, detain, retain are not derivatives; conceive, deceive, receive, since what is emitted as a suffix or the prefix in such words does not reveal a semantic relationship with those parts of the word that remain after subtracting what is taken as a suffix or prefix. For modern linguistic consciousness, such words are inseparable. The allocation of some elements in them can be important only for diachronic (historical) analysis [6, p. 56]. From the point of view of derivational analysis, a word is derived if it can be produced from a generating base by members of a given linguistic community. If a word can appear in speech only as a ready-made reproducible unit, then it is non-derivative. On the one hand, a part similar to a prefix or suffix is highlighted in the word “clearly”, and on the other hand, a part of the word remains that has no meaning. Consider the above examples: document and government, capable and readable. On the one hand, after subtracting -ment from document and - able of capable does not remain significant and therefore document and capable are indivisible, which would imply that they are suffixes. The word document is a noun, as evidenced by the meaning and morpheme -ment. This latter derivationally can behave in the same way as the morpheme -ment, where it clearly appears as a derivational suffix, for example, it precedes the suffix -al (documental - cf. gove rnme nt al), the suffix -ru (documentary - cf. developmentary) ... The same applies to the -able suffix in capable (capableness - compare favorably) [6, p. 52]. So -ment in document and - able to capable, although they do not perform derivational functions, are suffixal morphemes. Therefore, in modern comparative linguistics, a special role is assigned to the teaching of various types of morphemes in the words of the English language and the character of their compatibility. 2.Word formation and its types There are some processes in creating English new words, such as affixation, compounds, conversion, change of stress, alternating sounds, abbreviations, acronyms. Affixation Affixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes and suffixes. In linguistics, prefixes and suffixes are called affixes, which is why this method of word formation bears this name. Affixation is the most common way to create new words. Depending on what exactly is added to the word stem (prefix or suffix), the prefix and suffix are distinguished. If both are added, then the method of formation is prefix-suffix. The advantage of affixing is that suffixes and prefixes give us a lot of information about a word. Suffixes indicate part of speech. If you carefully analyze English words, then you probably noticed that there are special suffixes for nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, thanks to which you immediately determine which part of speech is in front of you. In addition, suffixes can give additional meanings to words. In this article, I will not dwell on the meanings of all suffixes, but I will give a few examples of how suffixes work in English: teacher - the –er suffix indicates that the word is a noun, as well as the name of a profession or occupation beautiful - suffix - ful indicates that the word is an adjective fortunate - suffix - ate is also an adjective suffix fortunately - the -ly suffix indicates that the word is an adverb information - the –ation suffix indicates that the word is a noun informative - the suffix -ive indicates that this is an adjective informatively - the -ly suffix indicates that the word is an adverb derived from an adjective. Knowing the meanings of prefixes and suffixes, you can increase your active and passive vocabulary. First, you can independently form new parts of speech and change the meanings of words. And secondly, you will easily guess what the new words that you come across mean. Compounds There are compounds in the English language. These words are formed by merging the two stems. A word constructed in this way takes on a new meaning. Many verbs, nouns, adjectives are formed by compounding: hair + to cut = a haircut driving + license = a driving license - rights baby + to sit = to babysit - look after the child brain + to wash = to brainwash well + dressed = well-dressed green + eye = green-eyed Some adverbs and pronouns are also formed in this way: every + where = everywhere any + time = anytime some + body = somebody – someone Conversion Sometimes you know a word and you know it's a verb. And suddenly you meet him again - and it is a noun. This is how conversion works - the transition of a word from one part of speech to another. In this case, the spelling and pronunciation of the word does not change. This can be confusing, but the good news is that, although the meaning of a word changes with the transition, it still often remains close to the original word. There are different types of conversion. The most common of these is the transition from noun to verb and from verb to noun: an email - to email (email - write an email) a host - to host (host - to be the host, to receive guests) a name - to name (name - call) to call - a call (call - call) to visit - a visit (to visit - visit) Change of stress Many have never heard of this word formation method and confuse it with conversion. Although some linguists consider it as an example of conversion, in order to avoid mistakes, it is more expedient to consider it separately. When we perceive a word in a text, at first glance it seems that it simply "passed" into another part of speech, because it is written in the same way as the corresponding verb or noun. However, not all so simple. Some words do not just convert, but also change the stress! Are you surprised? Let's look at some examples: to permit [pə'mɪt] - permit ['pɜːmɪt] (allow - permission) to present [prɪ'zent] - present ['prez (ə) nt] (to give - a gift) Alternating sounds This is another "kind" of conversion in which the spelling changes. At the root of the word, voiced and voiceless consonants alternate: to advise [əd'vaɪz] - advice [əd'vaɪs] to live [lɪv] - life [laɪf] to believe [bɪ'liːv] - belief [bɪ'liːf]
In many languages there is a tendency to shorten words, which leads to the formation of new words. In English, this method is called clipping. Words that have arisen in this way are used by us much more often. Let's consider some examples: airplane - plane telephone - phone advertisement - ad examination – exam Acronyms Some English words are acronyms, or acronyms - words that are formed from the first letters of words: NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration UFO - unidentified flying object 3.Affix and its types Affixation is a way of word formation of new words by attaching to root or stem of a word of derivational affixes. In affixation distinguish between prefix and suffix word formation. Prefixing is a way of word formation of new words by attaching to root or word stem of prefixes. Prefixes - derivational morphemes that precede the root and change the lexical meaning of the word, but, in most cases, not affecting his belonging to this or a different lexical and grammatical class. One of the features that distinguishes prefix from suffix is that prefixes, as opposed to suffixes, in most cases, the formed words do not belong to the new part speech. In English, most of the prefixes do not have a transpose strength, however, there are some who have the ability translate one part of speech into another, for example, prefixes that produce verbs from nominal stems: head - to behead; dew - to endew. In the word formation of modern English, the prefix plays significant role, however, in the formation of adjectives it is not so great as in the formation of verbs. Typical adjective prefixes have the meaning of negation and opposition. The first are the prefixes un-, in-, non-, a-. The second group consists of prefixes-antonyms ill- and well-. Formation of nouns with prefixes is not widespread applications in English. In the formation of verbs, prefixation plays an important role, since with the help prefixes produced more new verbs. Also, the verb the prefixation of modern English is lexical by compared to other European languages where prefixes are capable also perform certain grammatical functions. Verbally prefixes of the English language do not have grammatical meanings. Their main function is derivational: forming new verbs, they change the lexical meaning of the stems with which they are combined. Suffixation is a way of forming new words by attaching to root or stem of the word suffixes. Suffixes –derivational root morphemes, adjoining or directly to the root morpheme (reader), or generators sequences of two or more suffixes (faith - faithful - faithfulness). One of the important features of the English suffix system is great freedom in combining suffixes with stems, i.e. compatibility suffixes with stems according to a certain model are very often not limited, which makes it possible to resort to simple syntactic constructions, avoiding descriptive phrases - breathable air - air that you can breathe.The freedom to combine suffixes and stems in English leads to numerous occasional formations. A characteristic feature of the English suffix system is the absence in her suffixes of an objectively qualifying attribute (compare Russian division, robbery), and the suffixes of the subjective-qualifying assessment (diminutiveness, contempt, condescension, affection, pejorativeness, etc.) In terms of transposition (converting) ability, affixes can be transposed (converting), i.e. forming another part of speech, and non-transposing (non-converting), i.e. not forming another part of speech, but changing the lexical meaning of the stem. Examples of transposing prefixes that form verbs from substantive and adjective bases: be-, de-, dis-, en- / in-, inter-, out-, over-, re-, un-. Examples of transpose prefixes that form adjectives from substantive bases of phrases, participles: ante-, inter-, intra, multi-, over-, poly-, post-, pre-, pro-, sub-, super-, un-, under. Most of the suffixes are transpose, serving to the formation of a new part of speech. Examples of transpose suffixes: -er, -al, - ese, -ness and many others. Examples of non-transpose suffixes: -ish (green - greenish); -ful (hand - handful); -ling (duck - duckling). Affixes, with the help of which especially a lot of words are called productive. Prefixes are usually classified according to the meaning they are give a derivative word. 1. Negative prefixes: un-, in-, dis-, etc. (ungrateful, incorrect, disadvantage). Depending on the initial sound of the root, the prefixes can have different phonetic and graphic design (allomorphs). 2. Prefixes denoting reverse action or repetition actions: un-, dis-, re-, etc. (to unfasten, to disconnect, to re-write). 3. Prefixes denoting spatial and temporal relationships, such as fore-, pre-, post-, over-, super-, etc. (to foresee, prehistoric, post-position, to overspread, superstructure). The most productive prefixes in English at the present time are: anti-, super-, pro-, mis-, re- (superwar, misjudge, reopen). Suffixes can be classified according to the part of speech that they form: 1) noun suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ation, etc. (teacher, freedom, brightness); 2) adjective suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, etc. (agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous); 3) verb suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize (darken, satisfy, harmonize), etc .; 4) adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward (quickly, eastward), etc. By their meaning, suffixes are classified as follows: 1) agent of the action expressed by the verb: -er, -ant, etc. (baker, dancer, defendant); 2) affiliation: -an, -ian, -ese (Arabian, Russian, Chinese, Japanese); 3) collective meaning: -age, -dom, -ery (ry), etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry); 4) diminutive pet: -ie, -let, -ling, etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudet, squirreling). Currently productive suffixes are: -ing, -y, -ee, -ist, -ette, etc. (smarty - clever, kitchenette, draftee, leftist) Let's take a closer look at the values of some of the most productive suffixes: 1) adjective suffixes have a well-defined meaning - able - "the ability to perform an action expressed by a verb" (readable); - less - "lack of quality" (toothless); - full - "the presence of quality" (wonderful); 2) nouns with the -ee suffix in most cases are "the object to which the action is directed": - addressee - "the one to whom the letter is addressed"; - referee - "the one to whom they turn for a solution"; 3) the adjective -proof suffix means “guaranteed from ": (soundproof, showerproof); 4) suffixes -able / -ible (in addition to the value specified in clause 1) are passive in meaning, they indicate a sign through the action that the subject is experiencing: money payable monthly - "money paid monthly"; 4.Compound words A compound word is a lexical unit formed from two or more bases by addition and allocated in the stream of speech on the basis of its wholeness. Integrality means inseparability, indivisibility, impossibility of dividing into parts and placing other elements between them (units) language. Signs of integrity are subdivided into internal (phonetic, morphological, spelling) and external (syntactic). Internal signs make it possible to judge integrity of a single lexical unit, external – about integrity of the lexical unit in the flow of speech. Spelling of compound words in modern English language is unstable. The same words by different authors and in different dictionaries are spelled differently. For example: loudspeaker – loud speaker, loud-speaker, loudspeaker, etc. No stability in writing either words of the same type. For example, textbook is written as one piece, story-book is hyphenated, a reference book - separately, meanwhile, the components of these words are in identical ratios. Semantic connection in all three cases is similar, and, nevertheless, their spelling wholeness is different. Thus, the graphical criterion can be used as additional when determining the integral shape. Most compound nouns are stressed only on the first element: 'copy-book,' football, 'holiday,' rain-coat, 'tea-cup, etc. However the placement of stress in compound words is associated with the ability for elements a complex word to be combined with other words and opposed to them. So, in cases: 'inkpot -' teapot, 'class-room -' bathroom the first elements and therefore the emphasis should fall on them. The word mankind can have two accents. If the unifying stress falls on the first syllable, the word means "men" and is the antonym to the word womankind. If the stress is placed on the second element, man'kind means humanity. The unifying stress is not always the same. It can be single or combined with secondary. It can be so strong that the second element will change its sound, since the vowel in it is reduced (for example, Sunday) or can be weaker, and then the sound the second component will be saved (birthday). There may also be cases where both components of a compound word retain their stress: 'gas-'stove,' new-'comer. Complex and compound-derived adjectives usually have two stresses equal strength: 'good-'looking,' kind-'hearted, 'red-'hot. In many complex words, the stress is unstable and depends on phrasal stress and syntactic function of the word: shortlived, lighthearted have one stress on the first syllable only if they are used attributively. Life-size, meanwhile have two stresses (stress only on the first syllable or only on the second) depending on the phrasal stress. Sometimes stress is used to delimit meanings within a complex words: 'overwork overtime or extra work -'over'work overwork. Thus, the phonetic feature cannot serve as the only criterion for determining a compound word. Phonetic and spelling wholeness increases, increase the cohesion of the components of a complex word, therefore the presence of such integrity may serve as evidence that this is a complex word, but it does not yet follow from this that the absence of this integral form, those the presence, for example, of two stresses or separate spelling excludes the ability to classify a combination of two stems as complex words.
An indicator of the wholeness of the word and at the same time an important factor, influencing its stability in the language is the presence in the vocabulary the language of words formed from it; while under the productivity of a complex words are understood to be all types of neoplasms (compound words, conversion). Morphological criterion. In some difficult words undeniable an indicator of their fusion and a unifying factor is morphological wholeness. So, all compound nouns, even those formed from other parts of speech receive in the plural suffix -s: forget-me-nots, good-for-nothings, hold-alls. However, this undoubtedly reliable criterion is applicable only to a limited the number of types of compound words. Syntactic criterion. Combining a phrase into a compound word promotes syntactic function. This is especially true for attributive function. A lot of phrases, being combined attributive function, are also combined by stress and graphically - hyphen: a not-to-be-forgotten expression, her four-year-old son, etc. Components of compound words cannot form independent syntactic links. So, in the phrase (a factory) financed by the government both full-valued words can get definitions: (a factory) generously financed by the British government. In the case of a complex words government-financed none of its components can be extended: impossible: * generously government-financed. Extending the first component possible only through the formation of a three-component compound word: Labour-government-financed. Thus, all of the listed criteria: graphic, phonetic, semantic, structural, morphological, syntactic - are not absolute, only their cumulative application allows us to talk about integrity and gives the basis for classifying the lexical unit as a compound word.
3.Depending on the type of stem, complex words are divided into: proper complex words; complex derivatives. Complicated words (blue-eyed, broad-minded) differ from complex words with a derivational basis, as well as the nature of the second element. The two parts of the compound blue-eyed are the -ed suffix with the value “having” and the base formed from the free combination of blue eyes, whose members lose grammatical independence and are reduced to one component of a word - its derivational basis. Graphically derivation can be represented like this: (blue eye) + -ed - blue-eyed. With another hand, such words can be viewed as pseudosyllabic or as a special group of derivatives, since they are formed on the basis of free phrases to which the suffix is attached. Wed: actually complex looking-glass words ((V + -ing) + N); owner-driver ((V + -er) + (V + -er)). 4.In terms of the structure of the direct components, they differ the following types of compound words: compound words, consisting of simple stems (film-star); compound words in which at least one component is derivative basis (chain-smoker); compound words in which one of the components is a contraction (mathmistress); Compound words in which one of the components is difficult word (waste-paper-basket).
another speech is formed without any changes in the external form words, if we mean the initial word forms, for example, the infinitive verb or common noun singular. Such words like telephone n. (telephone) and telephone v. (call / report on telephone) differ not only in their syntactic functions, but and paradigm, for example, the verb telephone has the forms telephones, telephoned, telephoning, and the noun telephone has the form plural (many) telephones. Love can be used in context, as a verb and as noun.
Close - v., To shut something in order to cover an opening, or to become shut in this way. Close- adj., Not far from someone or something. He was close to her (he was close to her) - adjective, to close with their kind wish (close their good intentions) - a verb. The conversion is typical for the English language due to its analytical system. Thanks to this method of word formation, the language acquires morphological freedom, since the same word can used as different parts of speech, and therefore, act in different syntactic function (i.e., be different members of offers). Based on these examples, we can say that most often the used form of conversion is the form in which the noun goes into a verb. The presence of conversion has invariably been considered as a typological feature of the English language and there are a huge number of works, one way or another connected with it. But before we light up some of them and show how exactly conversion was interpreted in English, I would like to note that if, indeed, the above phenomenon is a bright distinguishing feature of English, it and should be studied primarily from a typological point of view. This means that conversion should be studied as a special kind of transposition processes, establishing connections between separate parts of speech of a particular language and consisting in the fact that the word of one part of speech (or even certain particles of speech) appears in as a source of derivation to create words of another part of speech, another category, or class. The conversion turns out to be a representative of the transposition process without affix, i.e. occurring in the complete absence of any special affix morpheme, indicating the means of implementing this process. The main feature conversion as a word-formation process - this, of course, is the formation of a new designation with a new content, moreover, modeled according to the same rules that are observed, for example, with suffixation. The sign of conversion in modern English is the creation, thanks to this derivational process of semantic structures with more and more increasingly complex structures. The introduction of such complex structures therefore assumes their explanation. Another condition for conversion is obligatory identity of nominative forms of two words - initial and effective, the identity of the unit that motivated the process with the unit motivated by it. It is this fact causes difficulties both with defining the direction of production (what is derived from what), and with defining the secondary itself, derived character of the unit under study. In other words, this is the question of why in the above derivational pairs we we consider salt ‘salt’ or work ’work’ as the original units, and also on what our belief that salt ‘salt’ or work is based ‘Work’ is, indeed, derivatives; units obtained in word formation acts and therefore, sharing all the properties of the units of this class of names. In conversion history there is a clear tendency towards its expansion - due to the productivity of this method of word formation, it covered not only the most frequent verbs for the formation of verbal names, or, on the contrary, many frequent names to form action symbols on the named object, etc., the conversion has been consistently spreading and extending to new layers of initial units, for example, abbreviations or whole initial phrases. The word comes at the disposal of syntax, being categorical certain, i.e. appearing as a designation either an object, or a process, or a sign, or a landmark, etc. - i.e. possessing its pre-existing speech part-of-speech semantics. If we now turn - at least in the most general terms - to the history of the study of conversion in English studies from the indicated positions, it is easy to make sure that the understanding of the converted words and their specificity often reigned the same misconceptions that are indicative of modern linguistics: reasons and consequence, the causal chain events. Therefore, conversion is an extremely productive way replenishment of the lexical composition with new words. Exists different conversion models: nouns, verbs and adjectives can be converted to other parts of speech, acquiring new values. In different models, certain semantic relationship between members of a converting pair, but the most diverse relationships are found in the N → V model (the formation of new verbs from nouns), therefore it is considered most productive. In English, there are generally accepted word abbreviations that are used everywhere. This is not only the well-known P.S. (postscript) or etc. (and so on), but also designations for measures of length and time, days of the week and months, and many others. They can be found both in books and training manuals, and in correspondence. The development of the language does not stand still. Today, thanks to popular culture and the Internet, slang is evolving especially rapidly. So, over the past 10 years, many new abbreviations and abbreviations have appeared, which are useful for all learners of English. In this section, you will find common abbreviations used in England, USA and other countries. Many of them originate from the Latin language. etc. (et cetera) - and so on e.g. (exempli gratia) - for example i.e. (id est) - that is vs. (versus) - against AD (Anno Domini) - AD, from the Nativity of Christ BC (Before Christ) - BC, before Christ AM (ante meridiem) - before noon PM (post meridiem) - afternoon Abbreviations for people: Jr. (junior) - junior Sr. (senior) - senior Smth. (something) - something Smb. (somebody) - someone V.I.P. (a very important person) - very important person Aka (also known as) - also known as PM (Prime Minister) - Prime Minister PA (Personal Assistant) - personal secretary Books and writing: ABC - alphabet n. (noun) - noun v. (verb) - verb adj. (adjective) - adjective adv. (adverb) - adverb prep. (preposition) - preposition p. (page) - page pp. (pages) - pages par. (paragraph) - paragraph ex. (exercise) - exercise pl. (plural) - plural sing. (singular) - singular P.S. (Post Scriptum) - afterword P.P.S. (Post Post Scriptum) - after the afterword Re. (reply) - reply Rf. (reference) - footnote, link Edu. (education) - education Appx. (appendix) - application w / o (without) - without w / (with) - c & (and) - and Measurements: in. (inch) - inch sec. (second) - second gm. (gram) - gram cm. (centimeter) - centimeter qt. (quart) - quart mph (miles per hour) - miles per hour kph (kilometers per hour) - kilometers per hour ft. (foot) - foot (30 cm 48 mm) lb (libra) - pound (450 gr) oz. (ounce) - ounce (28g) pt. (pint) - pint (0.56 liters)
written speech. Letter abbreviations or abbreviations as a way of word formation declared themselves at the end of the 19th century and not a single one from European languages, including English. This way of word formation is productive in English and significantly simplifies speech, allowing you to save speech resources. Conclusion Word is the basic unit and basis of the language. English words are simple, productive, and complex. A simple word consists of a root to which morphological inflections can be attached. It is known that a derivative word is a word in relation to which some derivational act was performed: speaker, unable, to bed. At the same time, the morphological structure of the verb to bed is a simple word and in this sense does not differ from the noun a bed, however, the verb is a product of a derivational act (conversion), and therefore to bed is a derivative word. A compound word is a word that is formed as a result of adding two or more stems, such as the following words: blackboard, government-owned. It is customary to distinguish also derivative (or complex derivative) words, bearing in mind the complex words to which some derivational act was applied. A word-building element can be attached not only to a monobasic or dibasic word, but also to a phrase, for example, blue-eyed - (blue + eye / s /) + ed. In this case, we can talk about derivative (for example, suffix) words, the basis for which is the phrase. They can distinguish between derivatives from free (long-nosed) and from stable combinations (old-maidish, grass-widowed). The morphological structure of English simple words is not complicated. It is not burdened with morphological indicators of parts of speech, gender, type of declension or conjugation. Modern English has only a few inflectional inflections: - plural of a noun - s, - possessive case of a noun - -’s, - third person singular of present tense verbs - -s, - past tense of a verb - -ed. In modern comparative linguistics, a special role is assigned to the teaching of various types of morphemes in the words of the English language and the character of their compatibility. There are some processes in creating English new words, such as affixation, compounds, conversion, change of stress, alternating sounds, abbreviations, acronyms. Affixation is a way of word formation of new words by attaching to root or stem of a word of derivational affixes. In affixation distinguish between prefix and suffix word formation. Prefixing is a way of word formation of new words by attaching to root or word stem of prefixes. Prefixes - derivational morphemes that precede the root and change the lexical meaning of the word, but, in most cases, not affecting his belonging to this or a different lexical and grammatical class. One of the features that distinguishes prefix from suffix is that prefixes, as opposed to suffixes, in most cases, the formed words do not belong to the new part speech. In English, most of the prefixes do not have a transpose strength, however, there are some who have the ability translate one part of speech into another, for example, prefixes that produce verbs from nominal stems: head - to behead; dew - to endew. A compound word is a lexical unit formed from two or more bases by addition and allocated in the stream of speech on the basis of its wholeness. Integrality means inseparability, indivisibility, impossibility of dividing into parts and placing other elements between them (units) language. Signs of integrity are subdivided into internal (phonetic, morphological, spelling) and external (syntactic). Internal signs make it possible to judge integrity of a single lexical unit, external – about integrity of the lexical unit in the flow of speech. Spelling of compound words in modern English language is unstable. The same words by different authors and in different dictionaries are spelled differently. For example: loudspeaker – loud speaker, loud-speaker, loudspeaker, etc. No stability in writing either words of the same type. For example, textbook is written as one piece, story-book is hyphenated, a reference book - separately, meanwhile, the components of these words are in identical ratios. Semantic connection in all three cases is similar, and, nevertheless, their spelling wholeness is different. Thus, the graphical criterion can be used as additional when determining the integral shape. Conversion is a way of word formation, according to which from one part another speech is formed without any changes in the external form words, if we mean the initial word forms, for example, the infinitive verb or common noun singular.
Reference 1.Bauer, Laurie English word formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1983 2. Bauer, Hernández Approaches to Conversion (2005) 3. Levkovskaya, K. A. About the specifics of prefixing in the word formation system (based on the material of the German language) / K. A. Levkovskaya // Questions of grammatical structure / K. A. Levkovskaya. - M., 1955. 4. Manakin, VN Comparative lexicology / VN Manakin. - Kiev: Knowledge, 2004 . 5.Murray, Thomas M The structure of English, 1955 6. Marchand, H. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation / H. Marchand. - München, 1969. 7.Murray, Thomas M The structure of English, 1955 8.Matthews, Peter H Morphology: An introduction to the theory of word structure ( 9.Minkova , Donka English words: History and structure ,2009 10. Piottukh, KV Principles of allocation of prefix structural-semantic models in modern English / KV Piottukh. - M., 1970. 11.Poutsma, Hendrick A grammar of late modern English ( Groningen, The Netherlands: Noordhoff) Download 55.82 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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