4404138.pdf [Levina Tatyana Borisovna]
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, - Figure 1-1: An example of extreme spatial differentiation in the vegetation cover:
the north-facing slopes are covered with needle-leaf woody vegetation, the slopes of southerly aspect feature herbaceous species and patches of bare soil, and the conver- gent areas of the terrain exhibit a mixture of broadleaf shrubs and grasses. The site is located in the Columbia River basin (photo is courtesy of Dr. Enrique R. Vivoni). rainfall-runoff process, subject to stochastic climatic forcing. In this spatially explicit scheme, vegetation will grow and die, which will reflect its biophysical and biochemi- cal characteristics, seasonal and interannual climate forcing, and the competition for
vital resources. Such a framework offers a variety of opportunities to explore the bi- directional interactions between vegetation and hydrological mechanisms and repre- sents an important advance toward integrated ecohydrological modeling. Ecosystems of arid and semi-arid areas represent a particularly interesting object for study, as they comprise some of the major biomes of the world, often exhibiting a delicate equi- librium between their essential constituents. In these systems, soil water is generally considered to be the key resource affecting vegetation structure and organization. The
mechanisms through which water limitation affects ecosystems are related to carbon assimilation via the control of photosynthesis and stomatal closure as well as nitrogen assimilation through the control of the nitrogen mineralization rate. Many important issues depend on the quantitative understanding of dynamics inherent to these ecosys- tems, including human interference, climate change, environmental preservation, and proper management of resources. The aim of this work, therefore, is: 1) to develop a modeling system that incor- 53
v = f(t) tv a, R { a = f(t) tv v, R Ie, T, sl R*= f(t)
tv v, a
Figure 1-2: A conceptual diagraln of the adopted approach, illustrating the relation- ship alnong key cOlnponents contributing to the cycles of energy, water, and elell1ents in natural systelns. The arrows indicate the direction of influence. T is topography, C is clilnate, 5 is soil, V is vegetation, R is incident solar radiation, R* is net ra- diation
at the canopy and ground levels, e is soil lnoisture, and t is tilne. As can be seen, clinlate, topography, and soil affect the te111poral change in vegetation, soil
lnoisture, and net canopy/ground radiation at any given location; all latter variables are inter-related through
a variety of coupling Inechanis111s. to have topography-controlled properties (Beven and Kirkby, 1979). In addition, one of the largest problelns of linking point lnodels to explain ecosystem functioning is the spatial scaling issue (Peng, 2000).
Nlodeling vegetation at the catchment scale, however, should account for interaction aInong the stochastic fluctuations in precipi- tation and soillnoisture, the basin ge0111etry,and the vegetation structure. Therefore, a spatia-telTIporal approach that can resolve both the variation of hydrological fluctu- ations occurring at the hillslope scale and the diurnal variations of plant physiological processes is needed (Figure 1-2). 1.3 Hydrology-vegetation studies background Hydrologic lllodeling has generally ignored the ilnportance of vegetation as an im- portant
spatio-telnporal dynalnic
component in the land-surface hydrological cycle
and the existence of topographic controls on plant spatial distribution. Past simpli- fications are due to the overall extrelTIe complexity of the problelTI and differences in opinion alllong ecologists and hydrologists about what simplifications are necessary. 58
... 1 1 1,/", Isotropic Diffuse I Figure 2-1: Conceptual diagrmn of the shortwave radiative fluxes.
ratio of the actual Earth-Sun to the lnean Earth-Sun Distance, r [-],
is introduced so that:
S' - o r So 2 '
r 1.0
+ 0.017
cos [ 27r (186 - J Day)] 365
(2.1) (2.2)
where J Day is the Julian day [1, ... ,365]. For further discussion, several variables need to be introduced that define the Sun's position with respect to a location on Earth. The declination of the Sun, b EB [radian], or the angular distance between the celestial equator plane and the Sun, measured froln the forn1er (and positive when the Sun lies north of the Earth's equator)
and along the hour circle (Eagleson, 2002) is defined as (Curtis and Eagleson, 1982) 23.457r
[ 27r ] 180 cos 365 (172 - J Day) 76 (2.3) Globallrradiance 900
- South facing 800 -
700 .....
600 ........... NOOO I
~OO 300
200 100
..... 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Hour 16 18 20 22 24 Figure 2-2: The daily cycle of the global irradiance on a 30° slope that has either southerly or northerly aspect (August, Albuquerque, NM). Globallrradiance - East facing 800 -.
700 .....
900 600
N~500 IE ~400 300 200
100 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Hour 16 18 20 22 24 Figure 2-3: The daily cycle of the global irradiance on a 30° slope that has easterly or westerly aspect (August, Albuquerque, NM). 85
January February
60 40 June .................... 20 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . o 0.4
0.4 --:-:-.. '~::S70~~ 0.1 : : : . I~::~~
0.1 -: :- : . o 20 40 60 Aoril 60 40 May 20 40 60 March
20 ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . o 0.4 I 0.3
0.2 0.1
o 0.4
,0.3 0.2
0.1 0.4~""':""""':-"""":"" ,0.3 ~:-\~. '.' : : ......02 ~ : . . : \---../ ~~~
_- /\:
0.1 -: :- -:-:".. \.--.- o 20 40 60 August 60 40 July 20 o 0.4 ..., I ~:: .. s;'t__
.. ;.~<:.:•:.:: 0.1 '.' '.' : . 03 . ...!.... .
':" '.' : . 0.2
. ~,"/:'~:-\ ..~~
.:-"r'\ :"" :.../\" .......~~-'" --~~
0.4
: :- : . . . .. :::c
0.3 : ~Qt J 02 ~--.~~~ Iv .
0.4 o 20 40 September 60 0.1
o . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 20 40 60 October
~ ~::~"-.i'C-0/\~\. :..:
0.1 ' \~:-:-:-. 0.4 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 0.4 ""
-: :- : . ,0.31~1"" .:.. /1 :
. ...... '-J ;:----...........J .. ~:~.::::~. :U-----------~ 60 o o 20 40 60 Transition period, Hour 20 40
o 4 --:\
: - Mean cloudiness . ~
: - Std of mean value I~::..
0.1
:- ; . 60 20 40 November 20 40 60 Transition period, Hour '\ . .. \\ " ' : . \-.\~...:...:)L :--:-~(t-,~ ..~------"':':-~-:\..-. o 0.4
... I 0.3 0.2 0.1
o Figure 2-11: The estilnated lnean cloud cover value and standard deviation of the estinlate as a function of the length of transition period (Albuquerque, NM). 102
January ...
0.5 : . I~:~~£ . . . .
'.' : '.' ' . o 20 40 60 80 100 March
February 0.4 ~.... ":' .....
: ..... ': .....
I~:~~ ~ 0.1 -: : :- : . o 20 40 60 80 100
April 04 . . '.'
: '.'
' . I O.3 0.2
0.1 ...
................................ . . . 0.4
:- ; :- . I ~:;
I~~_,-- ; o 20 40 60 May 80 100
o 20 40 60 June
80 100
100 20 40 60 80 Transition period, Hour o 0.4
...... :......
: ...... : .. " IO.3~
.. : : : . 0.2
~ \----i--.-.--:~'\. 0.1 -:
-: : . o 20 40 60 80 100 August 0.5
: ; : . 0.4 . IO.3
~: ;~ : . 0.2
: : . . . . 0.1 :. ; .: : . o 20 40 60 80 100 October 0.5
.: ; : . . . . . 0.4~ : ' : : . I~:;~~< •••••••• C o 20 40 60 80 100 December
0.5 : . - Mean cloudiness 0.4 ):\ .... : - Std of mean value I 0.3 ~ .. : , : : . 0.2 .. ~ : : . 0.1
: ; : ~ 100
80 40 60 July 20 o 0.5 0.4
0.4 -: : -: . 0"----'-----'------'-----'------' o 20 40 60 80 100 November 103
: , . .......... • "",-,""~---.......-v",",,- 0.2
: : : . . . . . 0.1 .: ; :. : . o 20 40 60 80 100
0.4 ~: SePtemb~r : .
. . . . . . 10.2~"":""";""" ........... ~v~~~ 0.5
: ; : ; . .... I ~:: ~:::
::: :::::
~::::: ::::
:::::::::::: 0.2
.. _'--
... ~:.----
0.1 .....
'.' ..... : .....
'.' ..... '.' ..... o 20
60 80 100 Transition period, Hour Figure 2-12: The estimated mean cloud cover value and standard deviation of the
estimate as a function of the length of transition period (Tucson, AZ). 103
February 0.4
IO.3 0.2
0.1 0 20 40 60 80 100 April
0.4 "'"
. 100
80 40 60 March 20 0.1 o 0.4 ..... 0.4 ,
. :::c
0.3 .'\.._<~
~ : : . 0.2
:.~~~~~ January
100 80 40 60 June
20 0.1
o 0.4 .
10.3 ~ : ; : : . .......
'-~ • /'~~ .-~ 0.2
-:.. "':':-.. ~ :.. --:-~ . "\.~" 10.3 :
: , . ....... ~~.
: .. 0.2 :.~~~0'v:~-\~:_ 100.
80 40 60 May 20 :::c 0.3 ".,<,-~~~:"""""", .
0.2
0.1 o 0.4 IO.3 '~~~'~"':"'" .: 'A'~
0.2 :.~.
-:->"'<'~"':':~\\ /\..../.: .\- . 0.1
o 20 40 60 July
80 100
0.1 o 20 40 60 August 80 100
0.4 04 . ..... 10.3
\ .. .......0.2 .
0.1
o 20 40 60 September 80 100
0.1 o 20 40 60 October 80 100
\ ...
~::::>-~:-v'-~~/~ 0.4
... ............................... . .
0.4~::::;""":"""':""" I::: :.~
••_~~_ 100
100 80 40 60 December
20 20 40 60 80 Transition period, Hour 0.1 o 0.1 o 0.4
, . :I 0.3 ~ : ~ ~ . 0.2 ..... -:...
~ - Mean cloudiness . -'
100 100
80 40 60 November 20 20 40 60 80 Transition period, Hour 0.1
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