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participate in these conventions themselves in speaking the L2 (see another
example in Chapter 11).
In fact, in order to assert their subjectivity, learners have various reasons
both for choosing to emulate L2 community norms and for deliberately
refusing to follow such norms. When culturally sensitive pedagogy is being
practiced, these learner choices are respected and not penalized in the lan-
guage classroom. Knowing the range of L2 community norms and pragmatic
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Daikuhara (1986).

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T H E N U T S A N D B O L T S O F P R A G M A T I C S I N S T R U C T I O N
variability (i.e., having native-like receptive skills) can be of benefit to learners,
but the pragmatics of language production should be each learner’s own 
prerogative. This distinction between learners’ receptive and productive
pragmatic skills is highly important for everyday practice. Facilitating the
negotiation of L2 speakers’ voice that reflects their bilingual subjectivity
empowers them and assists them in drawing on multiple linguistic, cultural,
and pragmatic resources and legitimatizing their voices in their local con-
texts.
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Such efforts in critical pragmatics can lead to recognizing and working
to redress unequal distribution of power that often exists in established 
hierarchy, such as between so-called native and non-native speakers.
64
This
critical/transformative perspective has been called for and already incorpor-
ated into the instruction of Japanese pragmatics.
65
For examples of practical
classroom approaches and assessment grounded in critical pragmatics, see
Chapters 7, 8, 10, 14, and 15.
Discussion
In this chapter, we have briefly discussed some theoretical frameworks for
understanding L2 pragmatic use and development. We started with cogni-
tive frameworks related to L2 pragmatics that are prominent in the field. At
the cognitive level, research has suggested that explicit teaching – namely,
attention to linguistic forms and their relationship to relevant contextual
factors – will facilitate the learning of pragmatics more than simply expos-
ing learners to such material.
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Explicit provision of information regarding
pragmatics is likely to facilitate the learning of both norms of social beha-
vior and the language to use in specific situations. We have also looked at
interdisciplinary frameworks from social, cultural, psychological, and affec-
tive perspectives that have currently been receiving increasing attention in
applied linguistics.
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These frameworks allow us to see how language use 
and development can be influenced by learners’ subjectivity, agency, and