An Introduction to Applied Linguistics

parties for all of the purposes identified above.
One example that illustrates the potential of a portfolio-based assessment and 
reporting system is the European Language Portfolio (ELP) (Little and Perclová, 
2001) which has been developed as part of the Common European Framework 
of Reference (Council of Europe, 2001). The ELP consists of a Language Passport 
showing the learner’s ability level and intercultural experience, a Language 
Biography to facilitate reflection, and a Dossier containing examples of learners’ 
personal work that demonstrate progress and achievement. An electronic version 
of the portfolio is available which allows learners to create their language profile, 
assess their skills and document their learning experiences over the course of their 
language learning career.
Self-Assessment
The process of self-assessment involves learners in making judgements of their 
language ability and/or their achievement of learning goals and objectives. 
Self-assessment is an integral part of learner-centred approaches to instruction 
which aim to encourage the active participation of the learner in each stage 

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262 An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
of the teaching or learning process, including assessment (Ekbatani, 2000). 
Proponents have argued that using self-assessment can help learners to become 
skilled judges of their own strengths and weaknesses and to set realistic goals for 
themselves, thus developing their capacity to become self-directed (Oscarson, 
1997). For example, DIALANG, a diagnostic/placement test in 14 European 
languages which is delivered via the Internet (Alderson, 2005) allows learners to 
compare their self-assessed level with their test result in different language skills. 
Learners receive feedback on their test performance based on the Common 
European Framework of Reference language levels which raises their awareness 
of their own proficiency level and of the various factors involved in the language 
learning process (Huhta and Figueras, 2004). At the same time, score reports can 
be used for communication with a range of third parties, including employers 
and educational institutions. Such innovations, along with initiatives such as 
the electronic portfolios described above, show how advances in technology can 
be harnessed to meet the needs of multiple stakeholders in the language learning 
enterprise.
Self-assessment techniques that are commonly used in language programmes 
include self-corrected tests and exercises, rating scales, learner progress grids, 
standardized questionnaires and self-assessment test batteries (see Oscarson, 
1984; Brindley, 1989; Brown, 2004 for discussion and a range of examples). These 
procedures can be used by learners to estimate their general level of ability (for 
example, at the beginning of a course of instruction) or as a means of monitoring 
their progress relative to particular instructional objectives or performance tasks 
during the course.
Research into the use of self-assessment in a variety of educational contexts has 
provided a number of insights that can usefully inform language teaching practice. 
First, it has become apparent that the ability to carry out self-assessment cannot 
be taken for granted and that it is important to provide learners with adequate 
training in the use of self-assessment techniques (see Cram, 1995, for an example 
of such a programme). Second, the ability of learners to self-assess accurately 
appears to be related to the transparency of the instruments used. In this regard, 
the findings of a study by Bachman and Palmer (1989) suggest that learners find it 
easier to say what they ‘cannot’ do or what they have difficulty doing than what 
they ‘can’ do. This finding has clear implications for the design of self-assessment 
instruments, since most self-assessment scales are typically presented as ‘can do’ 
statements. Third, research studies indicate that self-assessment scales work best 
when the self-assessment statements are situation-specific and closely related to 
learners’ personal experience (Oscarson, 1997; Ross, 1998). There is also some 
evidence to suggest that cultural factors, as well as personality and psychological 
traits, may affect both learners’ willingness to self-assess and the accuracy of their 
self-assessments (von Elek, 1985; Blue, 1994, AlFallay, 2004; Matsuno, 2009). 
However, studies that have examined these questions have yielded somewhat 
mixed results and further research will be needed before clear patterns begin to 
emerge.
Other types of alternative assessment include learning journals, project work, 
teacher-developed tasks and simulations and peer-assessment. In many education 
systems, evidence from these assessments is being used increasingly, sometimes 
in combination with external tests, as a basis for reporting student progress and 
achievement against pre-specified outcomes statements or standards (Brindley, 
1998; Snow, 2000; Brown, 2004) which will be described in greater detail below.

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Assessment
‘Alternative’ assessment: Advantages and disadvantages
The various kinds of ‘non-test’ assessment listed above offer a number of 
potential benefits for all stakeholders in language learning programmes. First, 
they allow teaching and curriculum goals to be closely aligned, thus improving 
communication between teachers, students and other external stakeholders (Katz, 
2000). Second, the detailed diagnostic information yielded by such assessments 
can motivate learners to set their own goals and become more involved in their 
own learning. Third, the close observation of individual learner performance 
which accompanies some forms of qualitative monitoring and assessment can 
provide rich insights into student learning processes, and thus serve a useful 
professional development function for teachers (Mohan and Low, 1995). Fourth, 
the use of various forms of alternative assessment in combination enables teachers 
to obtain a wide sample of learners’ language performance in a range of contexts, 
thus providing more valid and dependable evidence of progress and achievement 
(Shohamy, 1998). Finally, since alternative assessment is less threatening to 
learners than formal tests that are administered under controlled conditions, it is 
more likely to elicit their optimal level of performance.
Despite these advantages, however, a range of concerns has been expressed 
about the use of alternative assessment as the basis for reporting student outcomes,