An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
part of teachers, alternative assessment is more time-consuming and expensive to
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Norbert Schmitt (ed.) - An Introduction to Applied Linguistics (2010, Routledge) - libgen.li
part of teachers, alternative assessment is more time-consuming and expensive to conduct than traditional testing (Hardy, 1995; Breen, Barrett-Pugh, Derewianka, House, Hudson, Lumley and Rohl, 1997; Hardy 1995). Decision-makers are, not surprisingly, often reluctant to commit extra funding to complex teacher-led assessment systems that require high levels of infrastructural support, particularly 264 An Introduction to Applied Linguistics when resources are scarce. However, as assessment researchers involved in assessment reform have argued, without such a commitment the possibilities of implementing such systems are seriously compromised (Eckes et al., 2005). Outcomes-based Assessment In recent years, the shift towards alternative assessment has been paralleled by a move towards greater accountability. Under increasing pressure to demonstrate ‘value for money’ to taxpayers, and/or to standardize curricula and outcomes within and across national boundaries, governments worldwide have identified a need for system-wide indicators for monitoring the outcomes of educational programmes. This has led to the widespread introduction of ‘outcomes-based’ approaches to assessment and reporting, whereby the results of teacher- developed performance assessments are used as the basis for reporting student learning outcomes against pre-specified attainment standards, known, inter alia, as ’frameworks’ ‘benchmarks’, ‘bandscales’ or ‘competencies’ (Norton Peirce and Stewart, 1997; Brindley, 1998; McKay 2000; Hudson, 2005). Examples of this type of approach are the Common European Framework of Reference in Europe (Council of Europe, 2001), the Canadian Language Benchmarks Assessment in Canada (Pawlikowska-Smith, 2000) and the Certificates in Spoken and Written English in Australia (Burrows, 2004). Over the last decade or so, the implementation of outcomes-based approaches has raised many of the issues and problems associated with the use of alternative assessment that are mentioned above (Brindley, 1998). In addition, the history of their adoption shows that in many cases the development of such assessment systems is driven more by government policy and ideology than by educational considerations (Shohamy, 2006; McNamara and Roever, 2006; Mencken, 2008). This policiticization of language testing has prompted the emergence of ‘critical language testing’, an approach which questions the ideologies and assumptions that underlie language assessment and calls for a radical re-examination of the power structures while advocating greater attention to issues of fairness and equity for test-takers (Shohamy, 2001, 2006). Conclusion The fundamental concepts, beliefs and practices in language assessment have changed in recent years, in part because of the shifting relationship between assessment and teaching. Previously, assessment tended to take the form of proficiency testing, based on general ability constructs, which was largely unconnected to the curriculum. Now there is a widespread recognition of the need for close links between the desired outcomes of instruction, curriculum content and assessment, and this new emphasis is increasingly reflected in assessment policies, materials and methods. However, although the integration of assessment and learning is supported by strong educational arguments (Black and William, 1998), as yet relatively little research has been conducted in language learning contexts to determine whether or not ‘embedded’ assessment results in improved learning. This important question will need to be investigated through washback studies that not only investigate the impact of tests on society at large but also explore ways in which classroom assessment occurs as socially situated practice (see, for example, Rea-Dickins, 2006; Davison, 2007). At the same time, in order 265 Assessment to ensure that the tests and assessments that are used in language programmes are optimally fair and valid, a continuing research effort will be required to clarify the nature of the constructs that underlie them. Further Reading Bachman, L.F. (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This classic work on language assessment develops issues of construct definition, test method, and validation in depth. It connects work in applied linguistics (for example, communicative competence theory) with the fundamentals of educational measurement. Bachman, L.F., Palmer, A.S. (1996) Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This book takes readers through test development and formative evaluation – detailing each step of the way in view of the theoretical and practical concerns that should inform decisions. The book contributes substantively to current discussion of validity by proposing a means for evaluating language tests which incorporates current validation theory but which is framed in a manner which is sufficiently comprehensible, and appropriately slanted toward language testing. Bachman, L.F., Alderson, J.C. (eds), Cambridge Language Assessment Series. This series offers authoritative treatments of practical issues in areas of language assessment, such as reading (Alderson, 2000), vocabulary (Read, 2000), language for specific purposes (Douglas, 2000), listening (Buck, 2001), writing (Weigle, 2002), speaking, (Luoma, 2004), grammar (Purpura, 2004) and assessing young language learners (McKay, 2006). Each volume contains an up-to-date overview of theory and research, accompanied by useful discussion and examples of testing principles and techniques. Fulcher, G., Davidson, F. (2007) Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced Download 1.71 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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