An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
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Norbert Schmitt (ed.) - An Introduction to Applied Linguistics (2010, Routledge) - libgen.li
• Context independent: as the written text must be able to make sense away from
the physical context in which it was produced, it must be self-explanatory and the reader needs to be able to access the meanings from the text itself (see Burns and Joyce, 1997). 270 An Introduction to Applied Linguistics • Lexical density: In Text 1 the lexical words have been underlined. There are nine clauses, with 29 lexical items, giving a lexical density of 3.2 items per clause; whereas in Text 2, there are 10 clauses, with 18 lexical items, giving a lexical density of 1.8. The information is therefore more densely packed in written discourse. • Formal and specialized vocabulary: for example: eminently tropical, species, widely disseminated, cosmopolitan. On the other hand, Text 2 displays features typical of spoken English. These are: • Context dependent: spoken discourse is more context dependent, in that speakers constantly refer to things in the context, for example ‘there was this cockroach like this’. • Lexically sparse: spoken discourse is lexically less dense. • Grammatical intricacy: the text is made up mainly of simple main clauses connected to one another by and. However, sentence grammar in speech can be very complex with clause after clause being added on, with extensive use of conjunctions, such as and, because, then, to link the clauses. For example in Text 2, Turn 3, there are 16 clauses in one clause complex (totalling 95 words). • Use of paralinguistic features (for example, Pat’s hand gesture of size of cockroach). • Because spoken language is produced as ‘process’ not as a completed product, it contains spontaneity phenomena, such as false starts, hesitations, incomplete clauses. These differences between spoken and written discourse are summarized in Table 16.1 below. Spoken discourse Written discourse Context dependent: relies on shared knowledge between participants; greater use of exophoric (external context) reference Context independent: must recreate the context for readers Less explicit/relies strongly on shared knowledge between participants Quite explicit marking out of what is going to be said (for example, in the first place, firstly, finally) Spontaneous and therefore displays spontaneity phenomena, such as false starts, hesitations, incomplete clauses Planned, edited and redrafted All interactants are engaged in the creation of the text, so there is turntaking, interruptions, overlaps, etc. Written text is only implicitly interactive (reader is assumed but not involved in the creation of the text) Multilogue (casual conversation very often involves more than two speakers, that is, it is usually multilogue rather than dialogue) Dialogic: Writer engages in a dialogue with the projected reader Grammatical complexity: in terms of the chaining of clauses and the inclusion of non- linguistic support to the construction of meaning Grammatical complexity: in terms of density of structure within sentences Lexically sparse Lexically dense Vocabulary is everyday/non-specialized Vocabulary more specialized Table 16.1 Differences between spoken and written discourse 271 Suggested Solutions Chapter 5, Pragmatics Reference There are numerous deictic expressions that need interpreting (for example, it [03], that [05, 06]), as well as the expression the South [05] meaning the South Download 1.71 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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