Biotechnology
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- Adaptive Enzymes See INDUCIBLE ENZYMES . ADBF See AZUROPHIL - DERIVED BACTERICIDAL FACTOR ( ADBF ). Additive Genes
- Adenylate Cyclase
- Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- Adhesion Protein See ADHESION MOLECULE , ENDOTHELIAL CELLS . Adipocytes
- Adjuvant (to a herbicide)
- Adjuvant (to a pharmaceutical)
- Adoptive Cellular Therapy
- Adoptive Immunization
- Aerobe
- AFLP
- Aglycon
- Agraceutical See NUTRACEUTICAL , PHYTOCHEM- ICAL . Agrobacterium tumefaciens
- ALCAR
- Aleurone
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AD An acronym referring to the group of dis- eases known collectively as Autoimmune Disorders. These include diseases such as multiple sclerosis, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. See also AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE , MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS , LUPUS . Adaptation Refers to the adjustment of a pop- ulation of organisms to a changed environ- ment. For example, during the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution caused large black soot deposits on the white bark of certain trees in England. The change in environment resulted in adaptation (e.g., via selective breeding) of a particular indigenous moth pop- ulation, consisting of a mixture of all-white and all-black members. Because the soot blackened the formerly white bark of the trees on which the moths rested, predatory birds were able to easily catch and eat the all-white members of the population. Thus, there were fewer all-white moths present in the breeding population, and a preponderance of all-black members. During the 20th century, antipollu- tion efforts in England resulted in a cessation of the airborne soot and the return of tree bark to its original white color. Because the preda- tory birds were now able to catch and eat the all-black members of that moth population more easily, the proportion of all-black and all-white moths in the breeding population once again changed. See also ORGANISM . Adaptive Enzymes See INDUCIBLE ENZYMES . ADBF See AZUROPHIL - DERIVED BACTERICIDAL FACTOR ( ADBF ). Additive Genes Genes that interact but do not show dominance (in the case of alleles) or epistasis (if they are not alleles). See also GENE , ALLELE , DOMINANT ALLELE , EPISTASIS . Adenylate Cyclase The enzyme (within cells) that catalyzes the synthesis (manufacture) of cyclic AMP. See also CYCLIC AMP . Adenine A purine base, 6-aminopurine, occur- ring in ribonucleic acid (RNA) as well as in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and a compo- nent of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenine pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. See also BASE ( NUCLEOTIDE ), BASE PAIR ( bp ), RIBONUCLEIC ACID ( RNA ), DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ). Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) A ribonucleo- side 5 ′-diphosphate serving as phosphate- group acceptor in the cell energy cycle. See © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A also CATABOLISM , ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ( ATP ), ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE ( AMP ). Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP) A ribo- nucleoside 5 ′-monophosphate that is formed by hydrolysis of ATP or ADP. See also HYDROLYSIS , ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE ( ADP ), ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ( ATP ). Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) The major carrier of chemical energy in the cells of all living things on this planet. A ribonucleoside 5 ′-triphosphate functioning as a phosphate- group donor in the energy cycle of the cell, ATP contains three phosphate/oxygen mol- ecules linked together. When a phosphate- phosphate bond in ATP is broken (hydro- lyzed), the energy produced can be used by the cell to carry out its functions. Thus, ATP serves as the universal medium of biological energy storage and exchange in living cells. See also ATP ase , ATP SYNTHETASE , HYDROLYSIS , CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION , BIOLUMINES- CENCE , ATP SYNTHASE , ADENOSINE MONOPHOS- PHATE ( AMP ). Adenovirus A type of virus that can infect humans. As with all viruses, it can reproduce only inside living cells (of other host, organ- isms). Adenovirus causes manufacture of a protein (metabolite) that disables the p53 gene. Because the p53 gene then cannot per- form its usual function (i.e., prevention of uncontrolled cell growth caused by virus/DNA damage), the adenovirus takes over and causes the cell to make numerous copies of the virus until the cell dies, thus releasing the virus copies into the body of the host organism to cause further infection. See also VIRUS , RETROVIRUSES , GENE DELIVERY , GENE THERAPY , CELL , PROTEIN , p53 GENE , DEOXY- RIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ). Adhesion Molecule From the Latin adhaerere, to stick to, the term adhesion molecule refers to a glycoprotein (oligosaccharide) molecu- lar chain that protrudes from the surface membrane of certain cells, causing cells pos- sessing matching adhesion molecules to adhere to each other. For example, in 1952 Aaron Moscona observed that (harvesting enzyme-separated) chicken embryo cells did not remain separated, but instead coalesced again into an (embryo) aggregate. In 1955, Philip Townes and Johannes Holtfreter showed that like amphibian (e.g., frog) neu- ron cells will rejoin after being physically separated (e.g., with a knife blade); but unlike cells remain segregated (apart). Adhesion molecules also play a crucial role in guiding monocytes to sources of infection (e.g., pathogens) because adhesion molecules in the walls of blood vessels (after activation caused by pathogen invasion of adjacent tissue) adhere to like adhesion mol- ecules in the membranes of monocytes in the blood. The monocytes pass through the blood vessel walls, become macrophages, and fight the pathogen infection (e.g., trig- gering tissue inflammation, etc.). See also OLIGOSACCHARIDES , MONOCYTES , MACROPHAGE , POLYPEPTIDE ( PROTEIN ), CELL , PATHOGEN , CD 4 PROTEIN , CD 44 PROTEIN , GP 120 PROTEIN , VAGINO- SIS , HARVESTING ENZYMES , HARVESTING , SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION , SELECTINS , LECTINS , GLYCOPRO- TEINS , SUGAR MOLECULES , LEUKOCYTES , LYM- P H O C Y T E S , N E U T R O P H I L S , E N D O T H E L I U M , ENDOTHELIAL CELLS , P - SELECTIN , ELAM - 1 , INTE- GRINS , CYTOKINES . Adhesion Protein See ADHESION MOLECULE , ENDOTHELIAL CELLS . Adipocytes Specialized cells within an organ- ism’s lymphatic system that store the triacyl- g l y c e r o l s ( a l s o s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d triglycerides) after digestion of those fats, later releasing fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream when needed by the organ- ism. See also CELL , TRIGLYCERIDES , FATTY ACID , DIGESTION ( within organism ), FATS . Adipose Refers to energy storage tissues con- sisting of fat molecules within some animals. Adipose tissue tends to increase if an animal consumes more energy-containing food than needed for its level of energy expenditure (e.g., via exercise). In humans older than 40, an increase in the body’s adipose tissue is correlated with an increased risk of prema- ture death (e.g., from coronary heart dis- ease). See also FATS , CORONARY HEART DISEASE ( CHD ), LEPTIN . Adjuvant (to a herbicide) Any compound that enhances the effectiveness (i.e., weed- killing ability) of a given herbicide. For example, adjuvants such as surfactants can © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A be mixed (prior to application to weeds) with herbicide (in water), in order to hasten trans- port of the herbicide’s active ingredient into the weed plant. That is because the herbicide must move from an aqueous (water) envi- ronment into one (i.e., the weed plant’s cuti- cle or “skin”) comprised of lipids/lipophilic molecules, before it can accomplish its task. See also SURFACTANT , LIPIDS , LIPOPHILIC . Adjuvant (to a pharmaceutical) Any com- pound that enhances the desired response by the body to that pharmaceutical. For example, adjuvants such as certain polysaccharides or surface-modified diamond nanoparticles, can be injected along with (vaccine) antigen in order to increase the immune response (e.g., production of antibodies) to a given antigen. Another example is that consumption of grapefruit juice by humans will increase the impact of certain pharmaceuticals. Those pharmaceuticals include some sedatives, antihypertensives, the antihistamine terfena- dine, and the immunosuppressant cyclospo- rine. The adjuvant effect of grapefruit juice is thought to be caused via inhibition of the enzyme cytochrome P4503A4, which cata- lyzes reactions involved in the metabolism (breakdown) of those pharmaceuticals. Another example is that consumption of the pharmaceutical known as clopidogrel (commercial name Plavix) by people imme- diately following a mild heart attack (severe chest pain) — along with aspirin — greatly reduces the risk of death, strokes, and (new, additional) heart attacks, versus taking aspi- rin alone after a mild heart attack. See also CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE , HUMORAL IMMU- NITY , POLYSACCHARIDES , NANOTECHNOLOGY , ANTIGEN , ANTIBODY , ENZYME , METABOLISM , HIS- TAMINE , CYCLOSPORINE , CYTOCHROME P 4503 A 4 . ADME Acronym for Absorption, Distribution (within the body), Metabolism, and Elimi- nation of pharmaceuticals. See also ADME TESTS , IN SILICO SCREENING . ADME Tests Refers to Absorption, Distribu- tion (within the body), Metabolism, and Elim- ination tests required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for approval of new pharmaceuticals or new food ingredients. See also FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION ( FDA ), ABSORPTION , METABOLISM , INTERMEDIARY METABOLISM , PHARMACOKINETICS , PHARMACOGE- NOMICS , CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION , ADME , ADMET , IN SILICO SCREENING . ADMET Acronym for Absorption, Distribu- tion (within the body), Metabolism, Elimi- nation, Toxicity of pharmaceuticals. See also ADME TESTING , IN SILICO TESTING . Adoptive Cellular Therapy The increase in immune response that is achieved by selec- tively removing certain immune system cells from a (patient’s) body, multiplying them in vitro outside the body to increase their number greatly, then reinserting those (more numerous) immune system cells into the same body. See also CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE , CELL CULTURE , IN VITRO , GENE DELIV- ERY , GENE THERAPY , EX VIVO ( THERAPY ). Adoptive Immunization The transfer of an immune state from one animal to another by means of lymphocyte transfusions. See also LYMPHOCYTE . ADP See ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE ( ADP ). Adventitious From the Latin adventitius, not properly belonging to. The term can be uti- lized to refer to: plant shoots emanating from sites other than typical ones (e.g., from a plant’s leaves); a small amount of transgenic grain accidentally mixed into other grain. See also TRANSGENIC . Aerobe An organism that requires oxygen to live (respire). Aerobic Exposed to air or oxygen. An oxygen- ated environment. Affinity Chromatography A method of sepa- rating a mixture of proteins or nucleic acids (molecules) by specific interactions of those molecules with a component known as a ligand, which is immobilized on a support. If a solution of, say, a mixture of proteins is passed over (through) the column, one of the proteins binds to the ligand on the basis of specificity and high affinity (they fit together like a lock and key). The other proteins in the solution wash through the column because they were not able to bind to the ligand. Once the column is devoid of the other proteins, an appropriate wash solution is passed through the column, which causes the protein/ligand complex to dissociate. The protein is subse- quently collected in a highly purified form. See also CHROMATOGRAPHY , PROTEIN , NUCLEIC © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A ACIDS , ANTIBODY AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY , LIGAND ( IN CHROMATOGRAPHY ). Aflatoxin The term that is used to refer to a group of related mycotoxins (i.e., metabo- lites produced by fungi that are toxic to ani- mals and humans) produced by some strains Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, common fungi that typically live on decay- ing vegetation. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea) and European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) are vectors (carriers) of Aspergil- lus flavus. Aflatoxin B1 is the most com- monly occurring aflatoxin and one of the most potent carcinogens known to man. When dairy cattle eat aflatoxin-contami- nated feed, their metabolism process con- verts the aflatoxin (e.g., Aflatoxin B1) into the mycotoxins known as Aflatoxin M1 and Aflatoxin M2, which soon appear in the milk produced. Consumption of aflatoxins by humans can also result in acute liver damage. See also CARCINOGEN , TOXIN , FUNGUS , MYCO- TOXINS , STRESS PROTEINS , LIPOXYGENASE ( LOX ), PEROXIDASE , HELICOVERPA ZEA ( H . zea ), BETA CAROTENE , OH 43 , BRIGHT GREENISH - YELLOW FLUORESCENCE ( BGYF ), CORN , EUROPEAN CORN BORER ( ECB ). AFLP Acronym for Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism. See also AMPLIFIED FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM . Agar A complex mixture of polysaccharides obtained from marine red algae. It is also called agar-agar. Agar is used as an emulsion stabilizer in foods, as a sizing agent in fab- rics, and as a solid substrate for the labora- tory culture of microorganisms. Agar melts at 100°C (212°F), and when cooled below 44°C (123°F) forms a stiff and transparent gel. Microorganisms are seeded onto and grown (in the laboratory) on the surface of the gel. See also POLYSACCHARIDES , CULTURE MEDIUM . Agarose A highly purified form of agar used as a stationary phase (substrate) in some chromatography and electrophoretic methods. See also CHROMATOGRAPHY , ELECTROPHORESIS , AGAR . Aging The process, affecting organisms and most cells, whereby each cell division (mito- sis) brings that cell (or organism composed of such cells) closer to its final cell division (i.e., death). Notable exceptions to this aging process include cancerous cells (e.g., myelo- mas) and the single-celled organism; both of which are “immortal.” See also TELOMERES , MITOSIS , HYBRIDOMA , MYELOMA , CANCER . Aglycon A nonsugar component of a glyco- side. See also GLYCOSIDE . Aglycone The biologically active (molecular) form of molecules of isoflavones. See also ISOFLAVONES , BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY . Agonists Small protein or organic molecules that bind to certain cell proteins (i.e., recep- tors) at a site that is adjacent to the cell’s “docking” site of protein hormones, neu- rotransmitters, etc. (i.e., receptor) to induce a conformational change in that cell protein, thereby enhancing its activity (i.e., effect upon the cell). See also RECEPTORS , ACTIVE SITE , CONFORMATION , CELL , HORMONE , ANTAGO- NISTS , NEUROTRANSMITTER . Agraceutical See NUTRACEUTICAL , PHYTOCHEM- ICAL . Agrobacterium tumefaciens A n a t u r a l l y occurring bacterium that is capable of insert- ing its DNA (genetic information) into plants, resulting in a type of injury to the plant known as crown gall. In 1980, Marc van Montagu showed that Agrobacterium tumefaciens could alter the DNA of its host plant(s) by inserting its own (“foreign”) DNA into the genome of the host plants (thereby opening the way for scientists to insert virtually any foreign genes into plants via use of A. tumefaciens). In 1983, Luis Herrera-Estrella created the first man-made transgenic plant by inserting an antibiotic- resistant gene into a tobacco plant. During 2000, Weija Zhou and Richard Vierling proved that A. tumefaciens is at least 10 times more effective (i.e., at “infecting” plants to insert DNA) in space (i.e., weight- lessness/microgravity) than it is when on the surface of the Earth. Among others, Mon- santo Company has developed a way to stop A. tumefaciens from causing crown gall, while maintaining its ability to insert DNA into plant cells, and now uses A. tumefaciens as a vehicle to insert desired genes into crop plants (e.g., the gene causing high production of CP4 EPSP synthase, thus conferring resis- tance to glyphosate-containing herbicide). © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A See also BACTERIA , DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), INFORMATIONAL MOLECULES , GENOME , TRANSGENIC ( ORGANISM ), PROTOPLAST , EPSP SYNTHASE , CP 4 EPSPS , “ SHOTGUN ” METHOD , BIOLISTIC ® GENE GUN , WHISKERS ™ , GENETIC ENGINEERING , GENE , BIOSEEDS , GLYPHOSATE , GLYPHOSATE - TRIMESIUM , GLYPHOSATE ISOPRO- PYLAMINE SALT , NOS TERMINATOR . AHG Antihemophilic Globulin. Also known as FACTOR VIII or Antihemophilic Factor VIII. See also FACTOR VIII , GAMMA GLOBULIN . AIDS See ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYN- DROME ( AIDS ). Alanine (ala) A nonessential amino acid of the pyruvic acid family. In its dry, bulk form it appears as a white crystalline solid. See also ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS . Albumin A protein that the liver synthesizes (manufactures). Most minerals and hor- mones utilized by the human body are first “attached” to a molecule of albumin before they are transported in the bloodstream to where they are needed in the body. See also PROTEIN , HORMONE , SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE . ALCAR Acronym for Acetyl-L-Carnitine. See also ACETYL CARNITINE . Aldose A simple sugar in which the carbonyl carbon atom is at one end of the carbon chain. A class of monosaccharide sugars; the molecule contains an aldehyde group. See also MONOSACCHARIDES . Aleurone The layer (“skin”) that covers the endosperm portion of a plant seed. See also ENDOSPERM . AlfAFP Acronym for Alfalfa Antifungal Pep- tide. See also DEFENSINS . Algae A heterogeneous (widely varying) group of photosynthetic plants, ranging from micro- scopic single-cell forms to multicellular, very large forms such as seaweed. All of them con- tain chlorophyll and hence most are green, but some may be different colors due to the presence of other, overshadowing pigments. Alicin A compound that is produced naturally by the garlic plant when the cells within garlic bulbs are broken open (e.g., during food prep- aration or consumption). Enzymes present within those garlic cells convert (precursor compound) to alicin. Research indicates that human consumption of alicin confers some specific health benefits (anti-thrombotic, reduce blood cholesterol levels, reduce/avoid coronary heart disease, enhance the immune system, etc.). See also CELL , PHYTOCHEMICALS , ENZYME , THROMBOSIS , CORONARY HEART DISEASE ( CHD ), CHOLESTEROL . Alkaline Hydrolysis A chemical method of liberating DNA from a DNA-RNA hybrid. See also HYDROLYSIS , RIBONUCLEIC ACID ( RNA ), DNA - RNA HYBRID , DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ). Alkaloids A class of toxic compounds that are naturally produced by some organisms (e.g., ants, certain plants such as lupines, and cer- tain fungi such as ergot). For example, cer- tain species of ants naturally produce alkaloids, as a self-defense mechanism. Poi- son-dart frogs (Dendrobates azureus) and two species of New Guinea songbirds (Pito- hui dichrous and Ifrita kowaldi) can tolerate those ant-produced alkaloids, so they also acquire that self-defense (toxin) by eating those particular ants. Another example is the moth Utetheisa ornatrix, whose larvae (cater- pillars) feed on certain plants that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Because those alka- loids are extremely bitter tasting and toxic, spiders that normally prey on them refuse to eat those Utetheisa ornatrix; even after they later become adult moths. If those moths (who consumed those pyrrolizidine alka- loids as larvae) get caught in the spider’s web, the spider will cut it out of the web and release that particular (toxic) moth. Vinca alkaloids, isolated from the specific plants that produce them, have been utilized as can- cer-treating (antitumor) drugs. See also TOXIN , FUNGUS , TREMORGENIC INDOLE ALKA- LOIDS , ERGOTAMINE . Download 4.84 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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