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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
and Cognitive Development (Saxe, 1991). Geoffrey Saxe uses mathematics
as one of the instruments through which he can provide strong support for his method of analyzing the intrinsic relations between culture and cogni- tion, which is essential in the ethnomathematics program. The research method proposed by Saxe relies on three components: (a) analysis of prac- tice-linked goals, which emerge during participation in cultural practices; (b) looking into the kinds of cognitive forms and functions individuals con- struct to accomplish these practice-linked goals; and (c) understanding the shifts in cognitive development and the interplay of learning across different cultural practices. An important case studied by Saxe, clearly a typical ex- ample of ethnomathematics, is the strange and unexpected number and counting systems of the Oksapmin culture in Papua New Guinea. Numerical problems among the Oksapmin are dealt with in terms of a 27-body-part number system with no base structure, in which a number is expressed by pointing to a body part, usually a transition part, like an elbow, a shoulder, or the neck; and operations are performed through strategies involving the body. A major part of Saxe's book is devoted to his research on the practice of candy selling as conducted by children in Recife, capital of the north-eastern state of Pernambuco in Brazil. There we have a major research group, led by Terezinha Nunes, David Carraher, and Analucia Schliemann, with a con- siderable amount of published research. Saxe did his research with street sellers, mainly in the markets, showing how they deal with everyday practi- cal mathematics with precision and high proficiency. Saxe's research fo- cused on a range of analyses of sellers as they practice their trade as well as the contrasting attitudes between distinct populations of sellers and between sellers and nonsellers. This includes the relations seller-customer, seller- peers, the observation of sellers' transactions with wholesale store clerks and cashiers, and the records of the transactions of sellers and clerks. He deals with sellers with different schooling, different years of practice, and distinct environments, clearly identifying different ethnomathematical practices. Another program that deserves attention is being carried out by Bill Barton at the Auckland College of Education. This is a complete program mainly in geometry and geometrical transformations focused on Maori dec- oration patterns. It is a good introduction to modern algebra based on the 451 UBIRATAN D'AMBROSIO traditional geometry of the Maori culture. In a forthcoming publication, the author discusses other examples from other cultures in a booklet to appear soon under the title Indigenous Peoples and Mathematics Education. Highly visual, which is a characteristic of ethnomathematical pedagogy, these ex- amples, particularly the Maori geometry, lead rapidly to abstract dealings. In the same line of research, using visualization and artisanal work, Paulus Gerdes develops a full curriculum in geometry based on practices and arte- facts encountered in the daily life of the student. The methodology consists essentially in looking at geometrical forms and patterns and asking why those objects have that form, which involves the production techniques. Gerdes refers to the optimal solution of the problem, suggesting the devel- opment of those artefacts as hidden or "frozen" mathematics (Gerdes, 1986). An important question about the ethnomathematics approach is its fea- sibility. It is said that it can be achieved easily as a somewhat spontaneous practice by inspired teachers, while it can hardly be taught to prospective teachers. In other terms, can ethnomathematics be implemented as a peda- gogical practice? The doctoral dissertation of Geraldo Pompeu junior was a major piece of research whose principal focus was "To investigate how an 'ethno' approach to mathematics can be incorporated into the school curricu- lum, and what consequences it has for the teaching and learning of mathe- matics" (Pompeu, 1992, p. 13). The research was designed for a teacher training program concomitantly with field work involving students practic- ing popular games, such as hop scotch and hot air paper balloon. Indeed it involved students' research on their activities, on their games. Pompeu con- cluded that activities based on research work can be influenced by the re- search environment as well as by the skills of the students, reflecting also parent involvement in the process. A major result showed the importance of teachers accepting and understanding their students' social and cultural background. Another important result points to the need for teachers to look at the assessment procedure from a different angle. The ethnomathematics pedagogy carries with it, implicitly, the concept of mathematics as a debat- able subject. Thus, students must have a bigger role in the assessment proce- dure. If mathematical knowledge is supposed to be shared between students and teacher, and not just transmitted from teacher to students, then teachers must show students how to assess and be critical of their own work. (Pompeu, 1992, p. 291) 452 4. CONCLUSION The examples given above point to some key issues in the Ethnomathe- matics Program. A major point is to look at all the practices of a mathemati- cal nature, such as sorting, classifying, counting, and measuring that are per- formed in different cultural settings through the use of practices acquired, developed, and transmitted through generations. The work of anthropolo- gists since the beginning of the century, and, more recently, of psychologists and sociologists, has recognized different ways of counting and measuring, even of classifying and of inferring in distinct native cultures all over the world. The recent decline in school achievement in mathematics, even in pros- perous nations, has brought more attention to cultural factors in mathemat- ics education. For some time, educators have studied children's behavior in rural areas and in urban communities, and they have recognized that chil- dren do well in their daily life, and, indeed, grow into successful citizens while performing very poorly in school mathematics; in some cases, drop- ping mathematics as their school subjects very early in their studies. Increasingly, attention has been given by educators to the cultural surround- ings of children as a factor affecting their achievement in school mathemat- ics. And this leads to increasing evidence that cognitive power, learning ca- pabilities, and attitudes toward learning are closely related to cultural back- ground. Add to this a sociopolitical dimension that creates learning barriers, which particularly affect children from deprived minorities. At the same time, it is recognized that outside the school environment, the performance of these children, lower achievers in schools, is successful. The same is true with adults. Both children and adults perform "mathematically" well in their out-of-school environment: counting, measuring, solving problems, and drawing conclusions. In fact, they are using "the arts or techniques of ex- plaining, understanding, coping with their environment" that they have learned in their cultural setting. These practices have been generated or learned by their ancestors, transmitted through generations, modified through a process of cultural dynamics, and learned by them in a more ca- sual, less formal way. It is a patrimonial knowledge of their cultural group. It is the ethnomathematics of the group. This sociocultural behavior has been identified in rural and urban com- munities, among workers performing specific duties, in several population groups, both in industrial nations and in the so-called less developed coun- tries, as well as in native communities. Particularly interesting are the eth- nomathematics of researchers in different fields. They develop their own jargon, even special codes and symbols, they relax or modify rules conve- niently to satisfy their modes of work, in a sense to conform to their modes of thought, and they generate, organize, and even transmit this "mathemat- ics," which, in most cases, is even denied mathematical status by the math- ematical establishment. The history of science abounds with examples. This is not less true, as far as jargons, codes, and styles of reasoning are con- cerned, even among different fields of academic mathematics. All these are manifestations studied in the Ethnomathematics Program. Essentially, the Ethnomathematics Program looks into the generation, organization, trans- mission, and dissemination and use of these jargons, codes, styles of reason- ing, practices, results, and methods. CULTURAL FRAMING 453 The steps from the generation through the progress of knowledge, in par- ticular, of mathematical knowledge, is the result of a complex conjunction of factors. Among them we recognize practices resulting from immediate need, from relations with other practices and from critical reflection, hence from theorizations about those practices, from attempts to explain and un- derstand facts occurring in one's everyday life, as observed – to explain and to understand, to make sense of what is going on – or experienced, and from playful curiosity, drawing on playful tendencies, and indeed on all sorts of intrinsic cultural interest. Of course, there has been no doubt that these fac- tors produce ad hoc knowledge. The basic question we face is to realize when ad hoc knowledge passes to methods and to theories, and, from theo- ries, how does one proceed to invention. But these questions are the seeds of any investigation of the nature of mathematical knowledge, both from the historical viewpoint as well as from exciting questions related to mathemat- ical progress. Where do mathematical ideas come from? How are they orga- nized? How does mathematical knowledge advance? Do these ideas have anything to do with the broad environment, be it sociocultural or natural? These questions, which underlie any investigation into the didactics of mathematics, are faced by ethnomathematics both as a theoretical program and as a pedagogical practice. UBIRATA N D'AMBROSIO 454 REFERENCE S D'Ambrosio, B. S., & Campos, T. M. M. (1992). Pre-service teachers' representations of children's understanding of mathematical conflicts and conflict resolution. Educational Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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