Born Losers
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Scott A. Sandage - Born Losers A History of Failure in America (2006) - libgen.lc
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Index Page numbers in italics refer to figures. Abolitionism and antislavery sentiment, 8, 19–20, 108–111, 136–139, 151, 154, 155, 156, 190, 193, 196, 205; “Am I not a man and brother?” motif, 193, 204 Achievement, 2, 4–5, 45, 50; identity and, 17–18, 39, 52, 60, 115–116, 119, 233, 237, 262, 265, 271, 275; definition of failure and, 46–48, 67, 94–95, 229; ranking of, 111, 149–150 Acquisition, 5, 27, 91, 116, 192, 232–233 Adams, Comfort Avery, 79, 107 Adams, James Truslow, 260–262 Adams, John, 192 Adams, Scott, 266 Adultery, 155, 175, 318n45 Affirmative action, 273 African Americans, 17, 19, 85, 86, 109, 166, 218–219, 221, 224; failure of, 4, 61, 123, 223–225, 273; as sharecroppers, 186, 222, as Civil War soldiers, 190–192; as Revo- lutionary War soldiers, 192–193; massa- cre of 1781, 192; slaves compared to white debtors, 194–195, 199, 202–205, 207–210, 322n12. See also Freedmen; Racism Age of Uncertainty, The (Galbraith), 271 Aimlessness, 4–5, 70–71, 87, 253–256 Aldrich, Nelson, 93 Alger, Horatio, 17, 260 Allen, Woody, 266 Ambition, 1–2, 12–14, 24–27, 41, 66, 94, 105, 124, 142, 174, 276; failure and, 16, 31–32, 35, 39, 81–82, 142, 254; of women, 72–73, 85; as success in itself, 97; Civil War and, 18–20, 190, 218. See also Contentment; Go-aheadism; “Race of life” concept; Underreaching American Dream, 1, 2, 97, 192, 258, 260– 261, 262, 276, 277, 278; failure of, 337n6. See also Success Amistad (slave ship), 138 Andersonville prison, 249–250, 335n37 Andrews, Solomon, 139–143, 144 Anonymity: of one who fails, 5, 38–39, 51, 148, 193–194, 209, 253, 263; of credit re- porters/informants, 160, 161, 165, 173, 177, 178, 179; in begging letters, 245 Anti-Semitism, 34, 107, 311n37 Appleby, Joyce, 9 Arthur Tappan & Co., 108–109 “Art of Making Money Plenty” (motiva- tional poster), 103 Asylums, 147, 148, 156, 184 Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, The, 8, 105 Autonomy, 193, 233 Averageness, 254, 256 Axelrod, George, 267 Babbitt (Lewis), 265–266 Baker, Jehu, 214 Balleisen, Edward, 10, 288n8, 289nn16,17, 322n12 Bankruptcy, 2, 4, 7, 10, 14, 23–24, 66–67, 91; definitions of, 11–12, 30, 195–196; statis- tics of, 13, 271–272; vs. insolvency, 30–31; legislation, 30, 36, 41–43, 87, 195–216; politics of, 30, 197, 206, 212, 217–218, 323n19, 325n24, 326nn38,39; legal vs. moral obligation and, 35–39, 41, 42, 60, 65; as new beginning, 47–48, 55, 203, 216–217; spiritual, 67–69; compared to slavery, 189–191, 193–195, 197, 198, 199– 200, 202–205, 210–211, 322n12; as social death, 193–194, 195, 197, 203, 323n20; of Confederate rebels, 209–212; “nervous,” 234. See also Failure; Insolvency; U.S. Bankruptcy Act Bankrupts: imagery of, 48–50, 52–59, 71, 92, 193, 198, 201–205; racist rhetoric of, 190– 191, 202–208, 215–216; as voting bloc in 1864 election, 200–202 Banks/banking, 22, 23, 28, 40, 43, 57, 92–93, 106, 126, 262, 271 349 Bank war. See Jackson, Andrew Barnum, Philo Fairchild, 297n11 Barnum, Phineas T., 81, 82, 83, 95; memoirs of, 17, 75, 227; American Museum, 74, 110, 113; bankruptcy of, 74–77; credit reports on, 78, 171; begging letters sent to, 235 Barnum, William Henry, 297n11 “Bartleby, the Scrivener: A Story of Wall Street” (Melville), 62–64, 68, 254, 267 Bartlett, John Russell, 24, 85 Baym, Nina, 328n2 Beard, George, 234 Beardsley, Elizabeth, 167, 175 Beardsley, Horace, 165, 169, 175, 176, 184, 185, 315n16 Beardsley, John, 164–169, 184–185, 187, 274, 315n16, 318n45; in libel suit vs. Lewis Tappan, 169–174, 179; relations with wife Mary and divorce trial, 174–178, 180, 318n45; on conspiracy theory in libel suit, 179, 181; land speculation by, 180 Beardsley, Mary Rutherford, 165, 168, 172, 174–178, 184 Beardsley, Phila Ann, 318n45 Beardsley v. Tappan, 165, 169–184, 186 Beck (musician), 275 Beecher, Henry Ward, 42, 234, 235 Begging letters, 228, 234, 235–236, 262–263, 266, 268, 335n38; sent by wives of failed men, 226–227, 233, 239–240, 241–242, 243, 246, 251–252, 262; sent to Rockefeller, 226–233, 237–242, 245–246, 248, 249–252, 329n5; sentimentalism in, 227, 231, 247, 250, 328n2, 330n11, 334n27; political economy in, 228, 249–251; and charity, 231, 233, 243, 247–250; sent to Twain, 235, 242; sent to Carnegie, 236, 242; surveil- lance and, 240–243, 249, 333nn19,22; as act of imagination, 244, 245–246; as transaction between strangers, 244–247, 334n29 Bell Curve, The: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (Herrnstein and Murray), 274 Bellows, John N., 41–42 Benton, Thomas Hart, 196–197 Betts, Samuel R., 169, 172, 173, 178 Bible stories and verses, 10–11, 56, 191 Biddle, Nicholas, 109 Billings, Horace, 159–161, 164, 171, 173 Blacklists, 84, 107, 186 Boalt, Charles L., 168, 171, 172 Bok, Edward, 254–255 Bomgardner, J. W., 229, 231, 232, 233 Booth, John Wilkes, 222 Born Loser, The (comic strip), 266 Boswell, James, 131 Bradstreet, John M., 8, 160, 161, 163. See also Dun & Bradstreet Bradstreet’s Commercial Reports, 122, 128 Brady, Mathew, 113, 114 Brandeis, Louis, 186 Branding, of slaves and soldiers, 206, 324n23 Brisbane, William Henry, 134–139, 142, 144, 151 Brook Farm (utopian community), 138 Brooks, Peter, 306n1 “Brother Jonathans Soliloquy on the Times,” 52, 53, 95, 251, 292n13 Brothers, Thomas, 72 Brown, John, 188, 275 Brown, Norman O., 271 Brown, Robert L., 145–147 Bryan, William Jennings, 73, 235 Bunker, Asa G., credit correspondence of, 313n8 Bureaucracy, 161, 181, 184; as rationaliza- tion, 163; capitalism and, 182 Burns, Anthony, 160 Burr, Aaron, 164–165, 185 Bush, George W., 273 Business: as model of selfhood, 4, 64, 92, 232–233, 248, 264–265; innovation, 112– 114, 142, 225; letters, 245, 247. See also Capitalism; Corporations “Business Man, The” (Poe), 73 Businessman/men: origin and definition of, 71–72, 73–74; as ideal citizens, 73; go- aheadism and, 92 Butler, Benjamin F., 169, 170 Butler, Judith, 330n9 Cannon, George L., 200–202, 205, 216–217 Capital, sentimental, 240, 243, 251, 330n11 Capitalism, 1, 3, 5, 13, 18, 29, 62, 64, 75, 87, 106, 124, 218, 228, 250, 334n29; language 350 Index of, 6, 11–12, 24–25, 26, 37, 39, 42, 52, 63, 66, 71–73, 75, 78, 80–81, 83–84, 90–91, 93– 94, 97, 104, 106–108, 115, 121, 126–127, 129, 130–134, 144, 149, 161, 162–164, 171–172, 174, 182, 191, 195, 200, 203, 206, 220–221, 225, 228, 233, 234, 236, 247, 249, 253, 263, 265, 275, 277; cultural history of, 10; eth- ics of, 13, 41, 80–83, 92; folklore of, 77; future prospects and, 88; bureaucratic, 163–164, 182; post–Civil War, 218, 227; sentimentalism and, 232, 234. See also Corporations Carey, Henry, 197 Carnegie, Andrew, 115, 225, 228, 249; beg- ging letters sent to, 236, 242 Carnegie, Dale, 260 Carruthers, Bruce G., 314n9 Carter Family (musicians), 268 Chandler, Alfred D., Jr., 8–9 Chaplin, Charlie, 266 Character, 18, 42, 46–47, 115–116, 130–131, 144, 260; personal magnetism, 79; iden- tity and, 115, 275; energy of, 131; judg- ments of, by credit rating agencies, 142, 184; definitions of, 144; as capital, 164 Charity, 147–148, 248–250, 254; begging let- ters and, 227, 231, 233, 243, 247; scientific, 240; investigations, 242, 245 Charity Organization Society, 240, 333n18 Chase, Salmon P., 110, 138, 139, 183 Chevalier, Michel, 88–89 Child, Lydia Maria, 87 Children, 11, 14, 38, 54, 55–56, 57–58, 77, 97, 136, 180, 227, 231, 233 Citizenship, 65, 194, 208, 212–215; enter- prising, 72, 203, 323n19; business men as ideal of, 73 Civil rights, 190, 215, 223, 268, 324n21 Civil Service Reform Act, 217 Civil War, 3, 12, 16, 17–18, 102, 116, 141, 186, 220, 251; legacy of abolitionism and am- bition, 190, 218; men ruined by, 190–191, 199; branding of soldiers, 206; veterans, 237, 249–250. See also Bankruptcy Clark, Albion W., 95–97 Clark, Christopher, 310n26 Class, 10, 50, 51, 64, 73, 90, 115, 194, 197, 213–214, 223, 232–233, 334n29. See also Middle class; Wage labor Clay, Edward, 57 Clay, Henry, 39, 221 Cleland, J. W., 237–238, 247 Clemens, Orion, 256, 336n42 Clemens, Samuel L. See Twain, Mark Cleveland, Grover, 236–237 Cohen, Barry, 301n2, 314n9 Coleman, Peter J., 7 Columbine High School shootings, 274–275 Commerce, 40, 57, 74, 97–98, 115; privilege of, 183 Commodities, 142–144, 227, 242, 331n11; identity as, 112, 114, 119, 129, 132–134, 149, 152; information as, 162–163, 178, 183–184 Communications, 10, 28, 78, 101, 115, 126, 147, 173; privileged, 183 Competency, economic ideal of, 9, 58, 81, 82, 193 Competition, 197, 222, 225, 231, 243, 249, 334n29; in twentieth-century culture, 266 Computer industry, 162. See also Informa- tion Confession, 47, 56, 136, 178, 228, 236, 243– 244, 333n19 Confidence: market conditions and, 77, 93, 106–107; credit reports and, 100–101, 121–123, 125. See also Trust Confidence Man, The (Melville), 122 Confidence men/games, 76–79, 100, 101, 105, 116, 158 Constitution of the United States, 189– 190, 192, 194–196, 326n38; Thirteenth Amendment, 208; Fourteenth Amend- ment, 212–215, 216, 326nn34,36 Contentment, 71, 81, 82, 233, 271; vs. ambi- tion, 14, 16, 20, 25, 50 Contract(s): contractual debt, 29–30, 36; vs. honor, 37, 231; theory of, 63–67, 248, 294n30; labor, 64, 73, 222; marriage, 177; and freedom to make, 192–193, 195; and begging letters, 244. See also Strangers: exchanges between Conwell, Russell, 8, 260 Corporations, 18, 227, 229, 232–233, 236, 249, 250–251 Counterfeit detectors, 122 Coxey’s Army, 228 Index 351 Crary, Jonathan, 304n24 Credit, 4, 106, 272; economy, 30, 40, 42, 54, 57, 76–77, 92–93, 98, 109; science of, 114, 120; slang, 131–134. See also Debtor-cred- itor relations Credit-rating agencies, 8, 9–10, 15–16, 66, 76, 84, 99–100, 107, 149, 178–179, 182, 186, 200–201, 233, 240, 242, 333n22; as infor- mation systems, 99–103, 161–165, 170– 172, 183–184; disciplinary aims of, 100, 115, 147, 154, 174, 301n2; and identity, 100, 103, 111–112, 114, 119–120, 125, 128, 130, 133–134, 142–143, 144, 145, 147, 149; as market memory, 101–102, 109, 127–128, 147; informants of, 101, 109–111, 120–121, 122, 147, 149, 153, 245; “spy-books” as pre- cursors of, 107–108; critics of, 110, 154, 174, 181, 182, 183–184; libel suits against, 110, 160–161, 165–184, 317n44; as forecast- ers, 111, 132, 152, 153, 155, 165, 174–175; ano- nymity of informants, 111, 160, 161, 165, 168, 173, 177, 178, 179, 181; power of, 115, 120, 135, 142, 144, 153, 163–164, 168, 182– 184, 240, 274, 315n16; moral regulation by, 147–149, 150–152, 163–164, 310n26; early color-coding by, 171. See also Ano- nymity; Dun & Bradstreet; Mercantile Agency; Secrecy; Surveillance Credit reports, 9, 15–16, 103, 107, 110, 119, 125, 142, 163, 184, 188, 233, 238; language used in, 25, 66, 77–78, 84, 92, 129–134, 172, 289n17; predictions of failure/success in, 76, 111, 132, 135, 149–150, 152–155, 164, 171–172, 174–175; as narratives, 102–103, 128, 129–131, 134–137, 139–140, 142–143, 145, 147–149, 158, 181, 185, 245; as “Red Books,” 127, 128, 142, 158, 170, 186; as commodities, 143–145, 148, 149–150, 152; error and bias in, 154–155, 160, 168, 172, 173, 181, 274, 311n37, 315n22; information removed from, 157, 158, 160, 161, 171, 173, 312n42; vs. oral culture, 164; as privileged information, 183–184 Crocker, Ruth, 331n12 Crockett, Davy, 26 Currency and coinage, 4, 28, 37, 106, 228, 333n23; privately minted “hard times to- kens,” 40–41; counterfeit, 101 Cushing, Caleb, 56 Cushing, Mary, 57–58 Cushing, Milton Buckingham, 54–55, 56, 57 Cushing, William Barker, 57 Cutting, F. B., 169, 170 Daguerreotypes, and identity, 113, 114, 116, 117, 120, 121, 123, 264. See also Photography Dalhart, Vernon, 268 Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., 160, 161, 313n2 Dangerfield, Rodney, 266 Danto, Arthur C., 308n10 Davis, Jefferson, 169 Davis, Rebecca Harding, 264 Dean, James, 269 Dearborn, Henry, 7–8 Death, 271, 276–277; social, 70, 193, 197, 203, 212; political, 194, 212; commercial, 203, 323n20. See also Suicide Death of a Salesman (Miller), 258, 259–260, 263, 264, 265, 277 Debt(s), 4, 11–12, 26, 107, 271; as contracts, 29–30, 36, 37, 41, 63–66, 190, 192–193, 195–196; moral vs. legal obligations of, 29, 35–39, 41–42, 60, 64, 65–66, 75, 190, 271–272; peonage (sharecropping), 186, 222; of Confederates, 190, 199, 207, 209– 210, 211–212, 212, 213; as metaphoric bondage, 190–191, 193, 194–195, 199, 202– 205, 207–208, 210, 217, 248, 253; Southern attitudes toward, 196–197; Debt (televi- sion game show), 271 Debtor-creditor relations, 7, 32, 33–34, 41– 42, 54, 61, 245; state jurisdiction over, 30, 195–196, 216 “Debtor’s banquet,” 60 Debtor’s Journal, The, 32–33 Debtor’s prison, 10, 24, 32, 33, 36, 39, 106, 194, 254; abolition of, 195 Decker, Peter, 7 Delbanco, Andrew, 14 Democracy in America (Tocqueville), 90 “Desolation Row” (song), 270 Dilbert (comic strip), 266 Divorce, as issue in Beardsley v. Tappan libel suit, 165, 168, 172, 175–177, 180, 183 Domesticity, 32–33, 50–51, 72, 156, 174, 177– 178, 227, 228–229, 233, 238–240, 251–252. 352 Index See also Market(s): connections to home sphere Domestic violence. See Wife abuse Don’t Look Back (movie), 272 Douglas, Stephen A., 83, 158 Douglass, Benjamin, 168, 169, 171, 173 Douglass, Charles, 223–225 Douglass, Frederick, 218, 222–225 Downing, George, 123 Drunkards, 6, 15, 66, 88, 147, 259; in credit reports, 150–152 Du Bois, W. E. B., 18 Dun, Robert Graham, 121, 128, 160, 161, 182, 302n2 Dun & Bradstreet, 100, 121–122, 156. See also Credit-rating agencies; Mercantile Agency; R. G. Dun & Co. Dylan, Bob, 269–270 Economic rationalization. See Rationaliza- tion Economy: crises, 14–15, 22–23, 28–29, 40, 92, 109, 126, 141, 190, 199, 228; credit, 30, 42, 93, 109; spermatic, 87; political, 191, 247–252, 250. See also Capitalism; Cor- porations; Great Depression; Panics Edison, Thomas, 17, 235 Education. See Schools Ellison, Ralph, 265 Emancipation, 18, 20, 199, 202, 204, 208, 210, 217, 221, 223, 225, 324n21; imagery of, 19, 193, 204; unpopularity of, 199, 218– 219. See also Freedmen Emancipation Proclamation, 139, 190–191 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 2, 6, 12, 27, 48, 60, 99, 111; on panic of 1837, 6, 276; on “a reason, in the man,” 45–47, 73–74; on “nowhere” men, 87, ambition, 94; on photography, 114; woman rejects “sac- charine” advice of, 238, 332n16 Employment. See Wage labor Energy: entrepreneurship and, 14; lack of, 83, 84, 87, 124, 149; go-aheadism in, 85; vs. activity, 87; of character, 131 Entrepreneurship, 4, 14, 27–28, 36, 64, 97, 108, 200, 330n8; as model of American identity, 3, 222, 225, 232 Epic of America, The (Adams), 260–262 Evers, Medgar, 276 Extravagance: as cause of failure, 15, 31–32, 35, 48–49, 50, 58, 107, 201, 253, 271; as feminine stereotype, 32, 33, 158 Fabian, Ann, 311n34 Failure: as deficit identity, 2, 5, 67–74, 82– 83, 97, 111, 114, 129, 143, 147, 160, 172, 193, 203, 232–233, 242–243, 251–257, 263, 330nn8,9, 333n19; definitions of, 4, 11–12, 16, 70–71, 269; and achieved identity, 4– 5, 17–18, 34–35, 26–27, 45–46, 52, 63, 91– 92, 94–95, 116, 119, 164, 222–225, 229, 262, 265; as loss of freedom, 4, 17–20, 64, 116, 119, 144, 186–187, 190, 193–196, 199, 203– 205, 208–209, 215–216, 217–218, 220–222, 223–225, 248–249, 251–252, 253–254, 270, 277; colloquialisms for, 6, 9, 11, 25, 68, 70, 71, 73, 83, 129, 130–131, 132, 275, 295n1; predictions and statistics, 7–8, 13, 76, 98, 111, 122–124, 132; and narrativity, 9, 47–52, 102–103, 127–130, 145, 148, 152–153, 158, 161, 217–218, 244–245, 252–256, 263–264, 306n1, 308n10, 311n34, 314n10; as cate- gory of identity, 10, 12, 16, 18, 47, 223, 251; stagnation as, 16, 80–83, 87, 233, 253– 255, 256, 266; individualism and, 18, 27, 66–67, 94–95, 187, 225, 232–233, 251–252, 265, 330n8; as lost future, 18–20, 35, 84, 88, 97–98; causes of, 26, 29, 35, 36, 42, 46, 54, 58, 92, 123, 146, 223, 235, 252–253, 262, 273; and deceitfulness, 35–36, 41, 74–78, 116; inherent (“a reason, in the man”), 46, 50, 54, 59, 63, 66, 71, 74, 87, 111, 147, 151, 273, 274, 278; visual imagery of, 52–53, 54, 56–57, 58, 76, 83, 84, 95, 251, 263, 266, 293n20; shipwreck and sinking as meta- phor for, 54–55, 66–67, 69, 284n17; over- reaching vs. underreaching, as definition of, 71, 84, 142, 232–233, 254–257, 276; so- cial Darwinism and, 247–248, 249; “aes- thetic of,” 265, 266, 270, 274; in popular culture, 267–271, 275; and nonconfor- mity, 268–269; death and, 271, 276–277. See also Ambition: failure and; Bank- ruptcy; Fear of failure; Loser; Manhood; Plodders Fairman, Charles, 326n39 Index 353 Families. See Domesticity Favor, as business term, 247–248 Fear of failure, 4, 10–11, 13–14, 16, 22, 24, 67 Featherstone, Sarah, 233, 234 Filene, Peter G., 338n14 Fisher, Sidney George, 92–93 Fitzhugh, George, 8, 197 Flagg, John, 70, 88 Flint, James, 89 Flunkies, origin of term, 83 Following the Equator (Twain), 256 “Forgotten Man, The” (Sumner), 6, 247– 248; redefinition in 1930s, 6, 262 Foster, George F., 174 Foucault, Michel, 301n2, 333n19 Fourteenth Amendment. See Constitution of the United States Fowlers & Wells, 113, 120, 305n28 Franklin, Benjamin, 15, 52, 76, 103–105, 107, 124, 277 Fraud. See Confidence men; Failure: and deceitfulness Free agency, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73 Freedley, Edwin T., 90, 154, 181 Freedmen, 18, 136, 138, 139, 189, 192, 197, 208, 212, 222; voting rights of, 213–214 Freedom, 3, 4, 14, 17, 64, 116, 144, 189, 215– 216, 223, 250, 253; paradox of, 18, 119, 186– 187, 192, 217–218; Whitman on, 116; “new birth of freedom” concept, 189, 221, 225; to make contracts, 192–193; economic, 203; definition of, 206, 216; success and, 277. See also Failure: as loss of freedom Freud, Sigmund, 271 Frink, Samuel, 171, 172 Frost, Lott, 204, 205 Fulsom, C. Wilmer, 257 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 271 Garfield, James A., 202 Gates, Bill, 263 Gekas, George W., 272 Gilded Age, The (Twain), 228, 236 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 234 Girard, Stephen, 59 Go-aheadism, 25–26, 39, 72, 81, 83–85, 91, 95, 124, 125, 134, 159, 222, 225, 260, 266; vs. getting along, 80–83; definition of, 85; speculation and, 89–90; individualism and, 94–95; twentieth-century usage, 273. See also Manhood: go-aheadism and Good-for-nothings, origins of phrase, 248, 265 “Gospel of Wealth” (Carnegie), 249 Gossip. See Rumors Graglia, Lino, 273 Grant, Ulysses S., 17, 322n16 Grassley, Charles, 272 Great Depression (1930s), 6, 258, 259, 262, 268, 338n7; history of phrase, 228, 329n3 Great Gatsby, The (Fitzgerald), 265 Greeley, Dawn M., 331n12 Greeley, Horace, 7, 71, 90, 173, 200, 264– 265 Griffen, Clyde, 7 Griffen, Sally, 7 Guthrie, Woody, 269, 270 Guy, Theodore B., 149–150 Habermas, Jürgen, 334n29 Hall, Nicholas, 273 Hamilton, Alexander, 28, 164–165 “Happy Failure, The” (Melville), 12 Hard times: as excuse for failure, 14, 28–29, 51, 95–96, 262; tokens, 40–41, 43 “Hard Times” (song), 28–29 Harrison, Gabriel, 113, 120 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 12 H. Beardsley & Co., 165–166 Hemings, Sally, 105 Herrnstein, Richard J., 274 Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 8, 42 Hildreth, Richard, 91 Hill, Hiram, 71, 80, 308n5 Hill, J. Henry, 44–45, 46, 47, 48–50, 59–60, 65–66, 67–69, 70–71, 73, 87; sense of fail- ure, 45, 68, 70–71; as law clerk, 60–63, 67–68; and “Bartleby, the Scrivener,” 62– 64; and Lemuel Shaw, 65; on extrava- gance, 107 Hoffman, Ogden, 169, 170 Holladay, James, 14, 20, 54 Hone, Philip, 26 Honesty, 7, 15, 42, 79, 80, 82, 83, 239, 253, 269; vs. fraud, 76, 78; and sentimental- ism, 247 354 Index Honor. See Contract(s): vs. honor Hornor, Joseph, 27–28, 28, 29–30, 31, 34–35, 42, 59, 66, 80; and dilemma of failure, 35–39, 43, 46, 60, 67, 273 Horwitz, Howard, 335n35 Howells, William Cooper, 81 Howells, William Dean, 81, 237 Howitt, Mary, 49, 292n9 Humbug, 41, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 91. See also Barnum, Phineas T. Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine, 39, 41, 50, 58, 71, 80, 81, 87, 114; on the Mercantile Agency, 143; on credit rating agencies and reports, 154, 172–173, 174, 184; criti- cism of stagnation, 254–255; on timing of failure, 273 Iceman Cometh, The (O’Neill), 266 Identity, 2–5, 10, 18, 45, 47, 73, 92, 111, 222– 223, 274; achievement and, 17–18, 39, 52, 60, 115–116, 119, 233, 237, 262, 265, 271, 275; manly, 88; speculation and, 88, 94, 97; market, 93, 144, 241, 242; manage- ment, 100, 103, 111–112, 114, 119–120, 124, 125, 127; modern concept of, 103; as com- modity, 112–114, 119, 129, 132–134, 149, 152; “sciences” of, 114–116, 120; vs. character, 115, 275; surveillance and, 120, 128; civil rights and, 223; and personality, 275. See also Achievement: identity and; Credit- rating agencies: and identity; Entrepre- neurship; Failure: as deficit identity; Failure: and achieved identity; Failure: as category of identity Individualism, 3, 10, 24, 27, 66–67, 187, 251, 256, 265; entrepreneurial, 28, 225; go- aheadism and, 94–95; propertied vs. ac- quisitive, 232–233; “intense” (Carnegie), 249, 251. See also Failure: individualism and Individual rights, 186, 208; vs. federal power, 206; Constitutional protection of, 215; federal protection of, 216 Industrialization, 3, 115, 144, 225 Information: industry, 99, 161–169, 173, 181; as commodity, 162, 163, 178, 183; accuracy of, 171–173; legal status of, 184; vs. pri- vacy, 184 Innovation, 27, 111, 142, 225, 273 Insolvency, 12; vs. bankruptcy, 30–31; laws, 36, 195. See also Bankruptcy Intelligence gathering. See Surveillance International Correspondence Schools, 255, 261 Invisible Man, The (Ellison), 265 It’s a Wonderful Life (movie), 275 Jackson, Andrew, 40, 41, 43, 57, 84, 186, 194, 197; “bank war” of, 54, 55, 56, 101 Jefferson, Thomas, 3, 28, 191, 194 Jenckes, Thomas A., 189–190, 192–193, 200, 201, 211; support of black rights by, 191, 213; bankruptcy legislation, 203–204, 206, 207, 208–209, 210, 212, 217; vs. Stevens, 206–207, 208, 210, 212–214, 215; impact on Fourteenth Amendment by, 212–215 Jenks, John, Esq., 192 Jenks, Prince, 192–193 J. M. Bradstreet & Sons Improved Com- mercial Agency, 121–122 Johnson, Andrew, 206, 208 Jones, Edith, 271 Joplin, Janis, 270 Journal of Commerce, 108, 123–124 Kaczynski, Theodore, 276 Keeping Up with the Joneses (comic strip), 266 Kennan, George F., 186 Kennan, Jairus, 179–180, 186 Kennan, Thomas, 186 Kennedy, John F., 276 Kensett, Thomas, 52, 53 Kirsanow, Peter N., 273 Kristofferson, Kris, 270 Labor. See Slavery; Wage labor Lacan, Jacques, 333n22 Ladder, as success metaphor, 81, 227–228, 238 Land speculation, 40, 74, 89, 180, 201 Law. See Bankruptcy: legal vs. moral obli- gation and; Bankruptcy: legislation; Contract(s); Information: legal status of; Insolvency: laws Index 355 Law, fictions of, 65, 67, 68 Leaves of Grass (Whitman), 116–117, 118– 120 Lebowitz, Fran, 274 Lewis, Sinclair, 265–266 Libel. See Credit-rating agencies: libel suits against Liberalism, classical, 14, 27, 35, 39, 42–43, 52, 335n29 Life insurance, 249, 251 Life of P. T. Barnum, Written by Himself, 17, 75 “Life without Principle” (Thoreau), 20 Light, George Washington, 84–85 Lincoln, Abraham, 8, 19, 96, 141, 200, 201, 217, 219; “race of life” concept, 12, 17–18, 20, 21, 220–221, 222, 223, 225, 232; on am- bition, 12, 82–83; business failure of, 17; as “sucker,” 83; as credit reporter, 156–158, 312n42; “rat-hole” anecdote, 156, 312n40; credit reports about, 158, 171, 312n42; as “first-rate second-rate man,” 158; “new birth of freedom” concept, 189; reelec- tion bid (1864), 199–200, 218, 219, 222; refusal to repudiate emancipation, 218, 221; speech to Ohio regiment, 218, 219– 220; on “new nation” of strivers, 218, 221–222 Lind, Jenny, 235 Lippmann, Walter, 337n6 “Little Boxes” (song), 269 Lobbying: by bankrupts, 200, 201–202; history of term, 322n16 Long Day’s Journey into Night (O’Neill), 266 Loser, history/usage of term, 11, 52–53, 95, 129–131, 266, 267–268, 269, 275 Lovejoy, Owen, 199 “Love Minus Zero/No Limit” (song), 270 Lowry, Thomas P., 324n23 Magnetism, personal, 78–79, 260 Manhood: failure and, 4, 10, 31, 34, 37, 39, 80–88, 95, 165, 193, 202–204, 229, 232– 233, 239, 247, 248, 255, 330n8; “broken men” concept, 6, 22, 54, 67, 76, 77, 83, 94–95, 148, 188, 202, 211, 237, 264, 330n9; and dependency, 16, 31, 35, 87, 146, 193, 194–195, 203, 237, 240, 335n29; models of, 17, 32, 43, 73, 84–85, 92, 93–94, 193, 203, 233, 237; go-aheadism and, 26–27, 85–88, 96, 97, 121; self-made, 32, 115, 144, 221, 235, 236–237; and freedom, 202–205, 208–209, 215–216, 249–252 Manifest destiny, 3, 56, 97 Mann, Bruce, 10, 288n8, 319n4, 320n7 Manning, William J., 148 Man Who Outlived Himself, The (Tourgée), 252 Market(s): as invisible hand, 5, 153; rela- tionships, 5, 229; discipline, 5, 9, 100, 147, 154–155, 163–164; culture of, 10, 45–47, 241, 242–251; revolution, 10, 11, 28, 42–43, 59, 62, 92, 93, 217–218; connections to home sphere, 16, 51, 55, 57, 128, 156, 161, 174, 177, 227–229, 231–232, 233, 241, 249; national, 28, 101, 114; fluctuations and volatility, 36, 80, 146; “reformation,” 39– 43, 92; memory, 101–102, 109, 147; senti- mental, 234, 243, 249, 250. See also Ratio- nalization Mark Twain’s Autobiography (Clemens), 97 Marriage: contracts, 177; role reversals in, 239 Marx, Karl, 309n20, 330n11 Masculinity. See Manhood Master plots. See Narrative McKillop’s Commercial Agency, 200–201 Melville, Herman, 12, 62, 64, 67, 68, 85, 122, 254 Menand, Louis, 273 Mencken, H. L., 262 “Men Made Out of Words” (Stevens), 277 Menninger, Karl A., 262 Mercantile Agency, 100, 101–103, 105, 106, 113, 182; as information system, 99–101, 161–164, 314n9; fees and procedures, 100–101, 110–111, 128, 131, 160–162, 172, 182; correspondents for, 101, 110, 121, 155; ledgers of, 101, 102, 127, 128, 131, 163, 170, 184, 185; founding of, 109–111; lawsuits against, 110, 160–161, 164, 165–184, 317n44; critics of, 110, 154, 174, 182, 184; branches, 121, 160; rivals of, 121–122, 162– 356 Index 163; Reference Book (with locking cover), 122; disciplinary aims of, 147–148, 163. See also Credit-rating agencies; R. G. Dun & Co.; Surveillance Middle class, 115, 262, 274; consumerism, 9; standards of behavior, 78, 174, 227; manhood, 232–234. See also Class; Do- mesticity Miller, Arthur, 259–260, 263; on failure, 276–277 Miller, Perry, 10–11, 334n27 Miller, Samuel F., 183 Mills, C. Wright, 266 Missouri Compromise, 190 Moby-Dick (Melville), 85 Momand, Arthur R., 266 Money, and representation, 333n23. See also Currency and coinage Moore, Chauncey, 14–17, 20 Moral obligation/responsibility, 35–39, 41, 42–43, 50, 78, 109, 190, 271 Moral reform. See Reform movements: moral Morand, Pierre ( Joseph Hubert Diss De- bar), 219 Morgan, J. P., 18 Morris, Robert, 194 Morris, William, 182 Morse, Samuel F. B., 108, 113 Morton, Samuel C., 70, 91 Motivational materials and speakers, 8, 103, 107, 260 Murray, Charles, 274 Nackenoff, Carol, 311n34 Narrative: of failure, 9, 47–52, 60, 102–103, 127–130, 145, 148, 158, 161, 217–218, 244– 245, 252–256, 263–264, 306n1, 308n10, 311n34, 314n10; religious conversion/con- fession, 47, 243; as generic “master plots,” 50–53, 56, 58, 59, 92, 129; autobio- graphical, 54, 56, 105, 135–136, 200, 243, 244–245, 254, 256; panic of 1857 as, 93; as commodity, 129–130, 134, 152–153, 161; cu- mulative, 134, 135; Aristotelian, 135; power of judgments in, 142, 158; and oral culture, 164. See also Credit reports: as narratives; Rumors National Bankrupt Association, 200, 201, 202, 205 National Negro Business League, 4 Native Americans, 214 Nelson, Dana D., 323n19 Nelson, Samuel, 183 Nettleton, Mary Estelle, 231, 232 Nettleton, Theron S., 231–232, 234 Neurasthenia, 234 New Yorker, 7 New York Secret Agency Association, 179 Nichols, Pliny, 34 Niles, John Jacob, 29 “Nobody Knows You When You’re Down and Out” (song), 268 North American Mercantile Agency, 187 Note-taking. See Record-keeping Obligation. See Moral obligation/responsi- bility O’Conor, Charles, 169, 170, 182, 183 Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company, 92, 126 Oil/petroleum wildcatters, 230, 239–240 Oklahoma City bombing (1994), 276 Old Man and the Sea, The (Heming- way), 8 O’Neill, Eugene, 266 Osborne, A. A., 226–228, 328n1 Osborne, Mrs. A. A., 226–227 Overreaching. See Underreaching Packard, Vance, 266 Panics, economic, 22–24, 26, 39–40, 92–93, 101, 126; of 1819, 4, 17, 26, 28–35, 37, 39, 52, 67, 254; of 1893, 4, 235, 251, 254, 258; of 1837, 6, 14, 17, 22, 24, 40, 43, 46, 50, 55, 72, 89, 90, 108, 109, 113, 142, 276; of 1857, 17, 22, 23, 26, 51, 72, 82, 92–93, 95, 125, 146, 199, 201, 272; of 1873, 17, 22, 185, 228, 235 Panopticons (octagonal prisons), 147 Patronage jobs, 79, 139, 245, 248 Peanuts (comic strip), 266 Perkins, Frederick Beecher, 234 Personality, 78–79, 260, 262, 275 Peter Funkism, 77–78 Phillips, Wendell, 158 Index 357 Photography, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120; of crimi- nals, 114–115. See also Daguerreotypes Phrenological Cabinet, 113, 118 Phrenology, 76, 113, 114, 116, 120, 124 Pintard, John, 39, 71, 254 Plessy v. Ferguson, 252 Plodders/plodding, 15, 39, 71, 233, 254, 255, 256–257, 275, 276 Poe, Edgar Allen, 73 Polanyi, Karl, 271 Politics, 3, 52, 57, 116, 200, 225; of failure/ bankruptcy, 30, 194, 206, 212; racism and, 190–191, 202, 205, 207–209; of Re- construction, 206–212, 216; and Four- teenth Amendment, 212–216 “Poor Debtor’s Oath,” 33 Poor Richard’s Almanack, 76, 103, 105, 106, 191 Popular music, 28–29, 85, 86, 204, 206, 230, 267–271 Postal service, 28, 59, 100, 107, 109 Potter & Gray’s City Trade Agency, 121– 122 Prentiss, Jonas, 106 Price, William, 7 Privacy: rights and issues, 161, 165, 178–184, 186; vs. legal privilege, 183 Private sphere, 54, 57, 174, 184, 228–229, 239–242, 248. See also Domesticity; Mar- ket(s): connections to home sphere; Public sphere Property: rights, 31, 190, 208, 216; as voting criterion, 194, 213–214, 215; possession vs. acquisition, 232–233 Proslavery sentiment, 8, 136 Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The (Weber), 5 Protestantism, 13; confession/conversion narratives, 47, 243 Psychiatry, 262 Psychology, 103, 261 Public sphere, 174, 184, 239, 334n29. See also Private sphere Rabbit novels (Updike), 265 Race. See Racism “Race of life” concept, 17–18, 20, 21, 220– 221, 222, 223, 225, 232. See also Ambition Racism, 61, 191, 192, 223; racial jealousy among failed white men, 197, 207–208, 209, 215–216; definition of failure and, 202–203; race-baiting, 202–203, 205; seg- regation, 222. See also Bankruptcy: com- pared to slavery; Debt(s): as metaphoric bondage Rafferty, Terrence, 265 Railroads, 28, 58–59, 93, 100, 122, 126, 240 Randall, Tony, 267 Randolph, John (of Roanoke), 196 Rape, 65, 276, 294n31 Rathbun, Benjamin, 89 Rationalization, 163, 234, 242, 248 Raymond, Fitch, 238 Raymond, John T., 236 Real estate speculation. See Speculation: land Reconstruction, 18, 186, 222, 225; Bank- ruptcy Act of 1867 and, 206–216, 326n39 Reconstruction Act (1867), 215 Record-keeping: and identity/assessment, 101–102, 107, 109, 114, 130, 158, 184; as mode of capitalism, 124, 163–164, 172, 187, 242–243. See also Narrative; Ratio- nalization; Surveillance “Red Books.” See Credit reports Reform movements: moral, 4, 6, 42, 100, 108, 109, 114, 147–148, 150–152, 156, 240– 241, 248, 264; of debt laws, 35, 58, 65, 88, 195; banking, 43, 92 Religion, 10–11, 13, 15, 16, 42, 47, 51, 108, 109, 136, 142, 243, 248, 303n16. See also Bible stories and verses Representative Men (Emerson), 45 Republicanism, 28, 52; ambition and, 13; republican vices and virtues, 27, 31, 35, 37; manly usefulness and, 32, 34, 39 Responsibility: moral, 35–39, 41, 42–43, 50, 78, 109, 190, 271; personal, 46, 114, 232; financial, 64, 95 R. G. Dun & Co., 121–122, 181, 185; list of 1861 bankruptcies, 199; credit reports, 233, 238. See also Credit-rating agencies; Mercantile Agency Riesman, David, 266–267 Rise of Silas Lapham, The (Howells), 237 Risk, 2, 11, 14, 39, 88, 90, 93, 94, 142, 195, 358 Index 225; of failure, 18, 189, 273; management, 100, 132, 142 Rockefeller, John D., 225, 226, 263, 335n38; begging letters sent to, 226–227, 228, 229–232, 233, 236, 237, 238, 239–240, 241– 242, 245, 246, 248, 249–250, 251–252, 329n5, 331n12; as the “Oil King,” 228, 230; as self-made man, 229; states “indi- vidualism is gone,” 250 Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 234 Rogers, Henry H., 256 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 6, 262 Roosevelt, Theodore, 3 Ropes, Joseph, 24–25, 32, 84 Rumors, 121, 154, 164, 170, 173, 188 Russell, Charles, 50–51 Rutherford, Charles, 176 Rutherford, Mary. See Beardsley, Mary Rutherford Sage, Margaret Olivia, 235 Sandburg, Carl, 156 Sansom, Art, 266 Sansom, Chip, 266 Schenck, Robert C., 141 Schleuter, June, 336n1 Schools, 105; gun violence at, 274–275, 276. See also International Correspondence Schools Schultz, Charles, 266 Schumpeter, Joseph, 163 Second Bank of the United States, 28, 40 Secrecy: of credit-rating agencies, 110–111, 122, 161, 173–174, 178–179, 181, 183–184, 186; begging letters and, 241–242. See also Anonymity: of credit reporters/infor- mants; Surveillance Seeger, Pete, 269 Segregation. See Racism Self/selfhood, 2, 34, 67, 259; and capitalism, 5, 27, 72, 88–92, 94, 103, 118–119, 186, 330n8, 336n38; economics of, 12–13; -reli- ance, 27, 45, 46, 47, 60, 124; -doubt/es- teem, 45, 47, 80, 124, 241; -representa- tion, 78–79, 105, 229; surveillance and, 103, 111, 128; sciences of, 114, 120; and slavery, 193; and freedom, 221–225. See also Achievement: identity and; Identity Self-help culture, 8, 223, 260, 264, 271 Self-Made Man in American Life, The (Cleveland), 236 Self-made men, 3, 6, 17, 18, 32, 83, 115, 125, 131, 144, 222, 225, 229, 236; phrase coined by Henry Clay, 39; Christian, 109 Sentimentalism: in begging letters, 227, 231, 239, 242, 244, 247, 250; definition of, 227, 328n2; at home, 228, 233; in litera- ture, 228, 334n27; in market relation- ships, 229, 234; of conduct, 231; cap- italism and, 232, 234, 240; idioms of, 235; vs. surveillance (“the gaze”), 242, 243, 333n22; vs. rationalization, 248; in popu- lar culture, 275 Sergeant, John, 36 Sharecropping, 186, 222 Shaw, Lemuel, 63, 65 Shipman, Asa, 13 Silicon Valley, California, 273 Silverman, Kaja, 333n22 Slander. See Credit-rating agencies: libel suits against Slavery, 20, 28, 109, 136, 138, 144, 156, 192, 203, 205; fugitives, 65, 197, 218, 222; chat- tel, 190, 195; as metaphor for debt, 190– 191, 193, 194–195, 199, 200, 202–205, 207– 208, 210, 217, 248, 253; slave trade, 191, 192, 193–194, 320n7; “white,” 191, 194, 198, 199, 205, 207–208, 210; as distinct from “bondage,” 193, 203; as social death, 193, 195, 197, 203, 323n20; wage, 194, 195; and seizure for debt, 196; meta- phoric idleness and, 203, 323n20; brand- ing of enslaved persons, 206; three-fifths compromise, 213. See also Abolitionism and antislavery sentiment; African Americans; Emancipation; Freedmen; Racism Smith, Adam, 163 Smith, Bessie, 268 Social Darwinism, 6, 247, 249 Social mobility, 115, 145, 232, 236. See also Ladder “Song of Myself ” (Whitman), 259, 285n21 Speculation, 28, 30, 50, 51, 52, 54, 58, 71, 132, 142, 257; compared to gambling, 29, 31, 90; land, 40, 74, 89, 180, 201; compared to squatting, 55–56; identity and, 88, Index 359 Speculation (continued) 91–92, 94, 97, 152–153, 311n34; go- aheadism and, 89–90; vs. legitimate business, 90; definitions of, 90–91; as “adventure,” 90, 91–92. See also Com- modities Spencer, Lewis W., 151 Spy books, 107–108, 109–110 Squatters, 55–56, 57 Stagnation. See Failure: stagnation as Standard Oil Company, 226, 239–240, 255, 256 Stark, John, 294n30 States’ rights, 196, 213, 214, 215 Steamboats, 28, 100–101, 123 Stevens, Thaddeus, 206–207, 208, 209, 210, 212–214, 215, 325n24 Stevens, Wallace, 277 Stewart, Alexander T., 235 Stone, Mrs. Ezra M., 175, 176 Story, Joseph, 196 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 234 Strangers: deceit and trust among, 78, 122, 142–143, 155, 187, 227, 245; exchanges be- tween, 174, 234, 242, 244, 246; begging letters and, 244–247, 335n29 Streetcar Named Desire, A (Williams), 266 Strive and Thrive (Howitt), 49–50 Striving, 2, 24, 27, 96, 98, 158, 232, 271; obligatory/compulsive, 5, 88–89, 97, 234, 265; ambition and, 14, 66; freedom and, 17, 116; spiritual costs of, 20, 266, 270; Lincoln’s vision of, 221–222; in begging letters, 251. See also Ambition; Wage la- bor: and striving/work ethic “Subterranean Homesick Blues” (song), 270, 271 Success, 2, 9, 35, 39, 45, 79, 97, 147, 187–188, 251, 275; as perpetual advance, 5, 71, 72, 83, 84, 93–94, 97, 131, 233; manuals, 8, 18, 73, 76, 90, 93–94, 96, 147, 228, 232, 255; maxims of, 15, 74, 267, 277–278; narra- tives and mythology of, 17–18, 135, 129– 130, 145, 236, 260, 278; visual imagery of, 23, 54, 55, 58, 103, 104, 224, 230, 236, 251, 255; inherent (“a reason, in the man”), 46, 71, 74, 145, 274; as achieved identity, 68, 229; ladder of, 81, 227, 228, 238; vocabu- laries of, 83, 130–134; as freedom, 220– 225, 277; women excluded from, 236–237; vs. death, 276–277. See also American Dream Suckers, history of term, 83 Suffern, Thomas, 125, 126 Suicide, 6–7, 47, 57, 71, 77, 126, 255, 257, 260, 262–263, 265, 338n7; notes, 9, 77, 263, 276. See also Death Sumner, Charles, 207, 211–212, 213 Sumner, William Graham, 6, 247–248, 249 Surveillance, 99–101, 114–115, 116, 240–241, 274, 301n2, 304n24; social/informal, 103– 105, 107; commercial/systematic, 109, 111, 148, 165, 187; technology of, 113–115, 120– 121, 274, 276; secret/involuntary, 120, 161, 183–184; as business method, 165; “the gaze” and, 240, 242–243, 333n22; begging letters and, 240–243, 249, 333nn19,22. See also Credit-rating agencies; Credit re- ports; Identity: surveillance and; Self/ selfhood: surveillance and; Sentimental- ism: vs. surveillance Tagg, John, 304n24 Tailer, Edward N. (“Ned”), 83, 121–124, 126–128, 133 Tappan, Arthur, 108, 109, 113, 124 Tappan, Charles, 105 Tappan, Lewis, 105, 107, 108–113, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 160, 161, 188; founds Mer- cantile Agency, 99–101, 109–110, 112; re- form/abolitionist activities, 100, 108– 109, 138, 147, 154, 155, 156; Brisbane and, 137–138; business failures, 147, 180; on moral regulation and surveillance, 148; on information industry, 162; rivals of, 162–163; in Beardsley v. Tappan, 168–169, 173–175, 177, 178, 180–181; retires, 169; on Beardsley verdict, 179; correspondence with Kennan about Beardsley, 179–181; death of, 181 Tappan, William, 99, 109, 124 Tappan v. Beardsley, 181–182 Taylor, Sebastian F., 177 Telegraph, 28, 59, 100, 113 Terkel, Studs, 262 Terrorism, 276 360 Index Thirteenth Amendment. See Constitution of the United States Thomas, Benjamin Franklin, 63 Thomas, Brook, 294n30 Thoreau, Henry David, 2, 69; and Max Weber, 5; famous failure statistic of, 7; on “complete failure,” 12–13; meaning of “different drummer,” 20–21, 270–271; on speculation, 89; visits the Mercantile Agency, 99–100, 186; as “reporter” in Walden, 187–188 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 13–14, 66, 90 Tompkins, Jane, 334n27 Tourgée, Albion W., 252 Tourgée, Emma K., 251–252 Trade unions, 111, 194, 195, 208 Tramps and transients, 229, 269 Transportation, 10, 28, 78, 89, 100–101, 115, 126 Trust, 78, 122, 186, 232, 301n2; as synonym for financial credit, 106, 127. See also Confidence; Strangers: deceit and trust among Twain, Mark, 12, 97, 228; begging letters sent to, 235, 242; bankruptcy of, 256; at- tempts to write Autobiography of a Damned Fool, 256; on failure and success, 277 Tweed, William Marcy (“Boss”), 169 Typewriters, 128 Underground Railroad, 218 Underreaching, failure defined by, 16, 45, 71, 84, 142, 232–233, 254–257, 276 Unemployment, 41, 228, 233, 262, 272, 273 Updike, John, 265 U.S. Bankruptcy Act: of 1800, 30, 190, 194, 216; of 1841, 30, 36, 59, 75, 190, 197, 199, 207, 216; of 1867, 190, 215, 216, 217, 326n38 Van Buren, Martin, 40 Van Cott, Joshua M., 41 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 17, 115 Van Der Lyn, Henry, 32, 34, 48, 50, 51, 53– 54, 59, 71, 90 Violent crimes, losers associated with, 274–276 Voting: property requirement for, 194, 213– 214, 215; suffrage, 195; bankrupts in 1864 election, 200–202; disenfranchisement of Confederate rebels, 212; basis of rep- resentation, 213, 214; rights of freedmen, 213–214; rights of poor men, 213–214; Constitutional rights, 215; for “male in- habitants,” 215 Voting Rights Act of 1965, 215 W. A. Cleveland’s Mercantile Agency, 121 Wage labor, 27, 28, 30, 90, 111, 144, 197, 208, 228, 256; and stagnation, 4, 62, 71, 85–87, 253–255; and striving/work ethic, 18, 27, 60, 82, 116, 145, 221–222, 237; and free agency, 64–65, 73, 194–195; statistics of, 115; as ideal of freedom, 116, 118, 220–221 Walden (Thoreau), 2, 7, 20–21, 187 Waldo, Giles, 99 Wall, Roxana Turner, 72–73 Wall, Thomas, 72–73, 88 Wall Street, 23, 24, 27, 59, 78, 99, 108 War of 1812, 28 Warren, Charles, 326n38 Warren, Samuel, 186 Washington, Booker T., 4 Washington, George, 96, 192 Wayles, John, 105 Wayles, Martha, 105 “Wealth” (Emerson), 74 Weber, Max, 5, 12, 13, 163, 271; “armies of clerks” phrase, 182 Webster, Daniel, 43, 100, 196 Webster, Noah, 11–12 Weems, Mason Lock (“Parson”), 131 Westbrook, Frederick, 24, 31–32, 80 White, Caroline Barrett, 51 White, Hayden, 306n1 Whitman, Walt, 77, 111, 116–120, 220, 259, 265, 269, 270 Whiton, James Morris, 40 Whittemore, Timothy, 47 Whittlesey, Elisha, 79 Whom to Trust (manual), 186 Whyte, William H., 266 Wife abuse, 123, 176 Williams, Hank, 268 Williams, Tennessee, 266 Index 361 Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (Axelrod), 267 Wilson, Sloane, 269 Wives of failed men, 9, 37, 55–57, 72, 87, 259; burdens of, 4, 259; as breadwinners, 57–58, 146, 238–240, 332n16; Arthur Miller’s Linda Loman as, 258, 263. See also Manhood: and dependency; Women Wizard of Oz, The (movie), 275 Womanhood, “true,” 227, 238–239 Women: as failures, 4, 61, 253, 254; pur- ported extravagance of, 32, 33, 158; ambi- tion in, 85; begging letters written by, 226–227, 233, 238–243, 246, 248–249, 251– 252, 262; gendered ideal of success, 236– 237. See also Domesticity; Wives Woodward, C. Vann, 212 Woodward & Dusenberry’s Commercial Agency, 121 Work/workers. See Slavery; Wage labor World Trade Centers, 276 “Yellow Wallpaper, The” (Gilman), 234 “Zip Coon on the Go-Ahead Principle” (song), 85–86 362 Index Document Outline
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