Chapter · January 2017 citations reads 8 14,254 1 author

Conclusions and Future Directions
The recent research on speaking outlined above has greatly enhanced knowledge of what content and skills development could potentially be covered in the teaching of speaking. In many contexts, however, the contextualisation of speaking syllabi, content, and activities within learner experiences and needs and in relation to current theories of learning are still lacking (see Hughes, 2002; McCar-thy & O’Keeffe, 2004). Many curricula mandated for the teaching of speaking are still introspected by curriculum developers or policy makers who follow (all too often slavishly) widespread trends in teaching methodology and are subsequently decontextualised from the cultural and social lives

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and interests of learners. An expansion of curriculum theory for speaking to incorporate the nature and features of spoken language within local and global communities of practice would be a fruitful direction for future research and a valuable addition to local pedagogical practices.

Related to this orientation for future development is the greater availability of course textbooks that reflect empirical knowledge about speaking (see Gilmore, 2015, for a recent review of what is and is not getting through to practice from discourse analysis research). Much textbook analysis from numerous international contexts indicates widespread biases of gender (e.g. Amini & Birjandi, 2010; Hamdan, 2010), racism (e.g. Lee, 2009; Mohamed, 2015), and cultural stereotyping (e.g. Magogwe, 2009; Hilliard, 2014), as well as a lack of meaningful incorporation of what is known about the naturalistic features and patterns of speech from pragmatics (e.g. Vallenga, 2004; Limberg, 2015), conversation analysis (Wong, 2002; Teng & Sinwongsuwat, 2015), and systemic-functional linguistics (Lähdesmäki, 2009; Chew, 2012). Such developments imply the urgency of much greater attention to spoken language knowledge and analysis (and it might be said to written language analysis also) in the training of teachers if effective outcomes are to be achieved (Burns, 2001; Achugar et al., 2007). In the light of such knowledge, teachers would also be in a better position to adapt textbook mate-rial which falls short of their students’ cultural, social, and personal needs. In this respect they would also be better equipped to exploit authentic materials and to advise students about developing their speaking abilities beyond the classroom (Nunan & Richards, 2015).
New technology offers great potential for wide-ranging developments in the teaching of spoken language. Increasing numbers of studies point to the benefits of computer-mediated communica-tion for speaking pedagogy. Yang and Chen (2014), for example, using web-based tools (e.g. online forums, weblogs, Skype, and email), found that Taiwanese seventh-grade students interacting with students in Dubai held strongly positive attitudes toward this form of learning and enhanced their linguistic competence, use of pragmatic skills, and intercultural knowledge. The authors argue that technology-enhanced intercultural language learning approximates real-life learning contexts by allowing students to use a language for the same purposes that they will use it outside of school life. The papers in Mottram (2013) explore ways in which technologies can be exploited for learners at different ages and for different purposes, while Dudeney et al. (2013) employ the term ‘digital litera-cies’ to delineate the “individual and social skills needed to effectively interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels” (p. 2) and provide a wealth of activities that teachers can use to incorporate technology into their teaching of speaking, as well as other skills. As this volume points out, the impact of new technologies is enormous and will inevita-bly be a source of significant future research and development in the teaching of speaking.
Technology will also greatly expand the capacity of researchers to continue to develop spoken language corpora and to deepen knowledge of the use of English locally and internationally. It is less likely that in future such “scant attention” (Mauranen, 2004, p. 195) will be paid to spoken corpora for classroom purposes as their value in achieving authenticity, communicative utility, and relevance to learners’ language needs become more evident. Much greater attention will also need to be paid, as Mauranen argues, to raising teachers’ awareness of the relevance of corpora for classroom pedagogy. Much has been achieved from empirical research and practical application in enhancing the potential for more effective instruction in speaking. The future promises to bring even more intriguing devel-opments for this important foundational skill.

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