Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- Figure 45.7
- Figure 45.9
- L6a,b and L6i–n
- Figure 45.10
- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
611 Figure 45.6 X-ray structure of the paullone ligand L2d, bearing a TEMPO free-radical unit. Non-labeled atoms represent carbon atoms. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) in T47D (ductal breast epithelial tumor) cells. Binding of the ligand to the ruthenium- or osmium-arene fragment resulted in significant reduction of antiproliferative activity, exhibited in the micromolar concentration range. L2d was found to be from 30 to more than 200 times more cytotoxic than L2e, the closely related compound that does not contain the oxyl radical, indicating the important role of the free radical for cytotoxicity. The impact of the compounds with a TEMPO radical unit on DNA secondary structure was studied to determine whether DNA is a possible intracellular target. Partial untwisting of the supercoiled form of the plasmid but no DNA fragmentation was found for the ruthenium and osmium complexes. The metal-free ligand L2d has no effect on DNA. Moreover, the untwisting of DNA required higher concentrations than those necessary for inhibition of cancer cell growth. These results indicate that DNA is not the crucial target of these compounds [57]. As a natural extension to our work, complexation reactions with biologically abundant metal ions, namely, copper(II), have also been performed. The ligands chosen were either bidentate, bearing an N,N-dimethylethylenediamine binding site (L4b and L4c) or tridentate, incorporating pyridine-2-carboxaldazine/hydrazone (L1d) and 2-acetylpyridine ketazine/hydrazone (L1b and L1e) binding motifs [59]. The complexes were prepared by reacting equimolar amounts of ligand and copper(II) chloride in methanol at reflux. The aqueous solubility of bidentate ligands L4b and L4c, and copper(II) complexes thereof, was sufficient for performing MTT assays. The IC 50 values measured in A549, CH1, SW480, A2780 (ovarian carcinoma), and A2780cisR (cisplatin resistant) human cancer cells were between 1.6 and 44 μM, depending on the cell line and the compound. With one exception, the activity of the complexes was comparable to the corresponding ligands. This is due to the copper(II) complexes dissociating easily in aqueous solution with liberation of the free ligands, as confirmed by UV–vis measurements and ESI mass spectra. To increase the thermodynamic stability of copper(II) complexes, sp 2 -hybridized nitrogen atoms were introduced and tridentate ligands (L1b, L1d, and L1e) were used for complexation reactions with copper(II) chloride in refluxing methanol, yielding five-coordinate complexes (Fig. 45.3). These are highly cytotoxic in A549, CH1, SW480, A2780, and A2780cisR cells, with IC 50 values in the nanomolar concentration range. Further efforts by us were focused on the replacement of the seven-membered folded azepine ring by a six-membered flat pyridine ring. This structural modification was realized in a straightforward manner via a two-step procedure leading to a new class of biologically active compounds, namely, indolo[3,2-c]quinolines.
Indoloquinolines are alkaloids naturally occurring in the West African climbing shrub Cryptolepsis sanguinolenta. Extracts made of the roots of these plants have been used for ages by the local people against several severe diseases including malaria, hepatitis, and bacterial infections. The healing effect was mainly due to the indolo[3,2-b]quinoline cryptolepine and, to a lesser extent, caused by an indolo[3,2-c]quinoline. Indoloquinolines exhibit a broad spectrum of biological properties, for example, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antitumor, antihyperglycemic, as well as anti-inflammatory activity 612 MODERATE CDK INHIBITORS TO POTENTIAL ANTITUMOR DRUGS [61]. Several mechanisms for the antitumor activity were suggested for these compounds, among them DNA intercalation, topoisomerase inhibition, and G-quadruplex DNA binding, leading to telomerase inactivation [62]. Indoloquinolines are chemically related to indolobenzazepines. Nevertheless, the structural difference has substantial consequences, as the whole ligand system of indoloquinolines is conjugated (heteroaromatic) and therefore planar. This difference between the two ligand backbones is shown in Fig. 45.7. The dihedral angle between the pyridine ring and indole moiety amounts 101.4 ◦ in the copper(II) complex with paullone ligand L1d, whereas the planarity of the related indoloquinoline ligand L6l is preserved in the complex. The first indoloquinolines used as ligands for binding to metal ions were L5a and L5b, which have shown activity against several human cancer cell lines [63–66]. Synthesis of the indoloquinoline backbone was achieved using a one-step reaction of 2-aminobenzylamine and isatin in glacial acetic acid [67]. The indolo[3,2-c]quinoline-6-ones can be further activated by chlorination with POCl 3 , yielding the corresponding 6-chloro derivatives. By condensation reaction with amines, chelating moieties could be attached, allowing for the binding to metal scaffolds [63, 68]. Figure 45.8 shows the synthesis route to these ligands. Figure 45.7 Structures of the Cu(II) complexes of the paullone ligand L1d (a) and the related indoloquinoline-based ligand L6l (b). While the paullone backbone is considerably folded, the indoloquinoline backbone is planar. Non-labeled atoms represent carbon atoms. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) R 2
2 CN R 1 NH 2 R 1 NH 2 H N HN R 1 O R 2 H N O O N HN R 1 H N R 2 N HN R 1 H N R 2 N(R 3 ) 2 H N HN R 1 N R 2 N N R 3 N HN R 1 Cl R 2 NH 2 L6a L6b L6c L6d L6e L6f L6g R 1 H H H H H H H
2 H H F Cl Cl Br CH 3 R 3 H CH 3 CH 3 H CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 L6h L6i L6j L6k L6l L6m L6n R 1 H Cl Cl Br Br CH 3 CH 3 R 2 NO 2 H H H H H H R 3 CH 3 H CH 3 H CH 3 H CH 3 L5a L5b R 1 H H R 2 H H R 3 H CH 3 Figure 45.8 Synthesis scheme for the indoloquinoline-based ligands L5a,b and L6a–L6n. INDOLO[3,2-C]QUINOLINES AND THEIR METAL COMPLEXES 613 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 L4b L4c [Ru(
p-cym)(L4a)Cl]Cl [Os(
p-cym)(L4a)Cl]Cl [Ru(
p-cym)(L4b)Cl]Cl [Os(
p-cym)(L4b)Cl]Cl [Os(
p-cym)(L5a)Cl]Cl [Ru(
p-cym)(L5b)Cl]Cl [Os(
p-cym)(L5b)Cl]Cl [Cu(L4b)Cl 2 ]
2 ] L5b IC 50 value ( μ M) IC 50 value (mM) 21 3
8.2 4.3
5.7 9.7
13 5.8
3.5 1.3
2 3.2
12 39 1.6 0.51 0.28
0.92 0.82
0.22 0.39
0.5 0.27
0.44 0.58
A549 SW480
CH1 A549
SW480 CH1
0.23 0.44
4 9.9
3.6 8.8
2.8 6.5
25 44 44 1.0 0.8
0.6 0.4
0.2 0.0
Figure 45.9 IC 50 values of ethylenediamine-based paullone ligands (L4b, L4c), their Cu(II), Ru(II), and Os(II) complexes, and of the corresponding indoloquinoline derivatives, as obtained by the MTT assay (96 h incubation time). Antiproliferative activity was determined in three human cancer cell lines, namely, CH1 (ovarian carcinoma, dark gray bars), SW480 (colon carcinoma, light gray bars), and A549 (non-small-cell lung carcinoma, black bars). The inset shows the expanded diagram for the indoloquinolines. Although ruthenium- and osmium p-cymene complexes of L5a or L5b were highly active in three human cancer cell lines (A549, non-small-cell lung carcinoma; CH1 ovarian cancer; SW480, colon carcinoma) with IC 50 values in the low micromolar range, they dissociated readily with liberation of the indoloquinoline ligand [68]. The results of the MTT tests are summarized in Fig. 45.9. One of the complexes, [Ru(p-cymene)(L5b)Cl]Cl, as well as the metal-free ligand L5b, have shown high DNA intercalation potential in a cell-free methyl green displacement assay, strong and concentration-dependent cell cycle perturbations, as well as a weak, concentration-dependent, cdk2/cyclin E inhibition in a cell-free kinase assay. Interestingly, cdk1/cyclin B was not inhibited even at concentrations more than 100-fold higher than the IC 50 value for A549 chemoresistant non-small-cell lung cancer cells. To increase the thermodynamic stability of ruthenium(II) and osmium(II) complexes we introduced into the potential indoloquinoline ligands sp 2 -hybridized donor atoms, affording L6a [69]. As expected, the complexes prepared were more resistant to hydrolysis and remained intact in aqueous solution over 24 h. MTT tests of ruthenium- and osmium-cymene complexes with L6a revealed that the cytotoxic activity was preserved, as depicted in Fig. 45.10. Therefore, further derivatizations were performed to achieve extended chemical diversity and to establish novel structure–activity relationships. Substitutions in positions 2 and 8 were realized [69–71], the latter position being comparable with the corresponding position 9 of the paullone backbone. We used both electron-withdrawing (F, L6c; Cl, L6d,e,i,j; Br,
3 , L6g,m,n) groups. Ruthenium and osmium complexes of ligand L6h, with a strongly electron-withdrawing NO 2 -group in position 2 were not assayed for cytotoxicity because of very low aqueous solubility. The third position for fine-tuning the biological properties was R 3 , being either a hydrogen atom (L6a,d,i,k,m) or a methyl group. MTT results (Fig. 45.10) indicate that SARs are not clear cut. Obviously, electron-withdrawing substituents in position 2 lead to a slight decrease in cytotoxicity, whereas substitution in position 8 has no effect essentially. The picture is a bit different when comparing the ruthenium complexes with their osmium congeners. In most of the cases, the osmium analogs exhibit similar or slightly higher activity, but there are also cases (L6a) where the osmium complex is more than one order of magnitude more cytotoxic than its ruthenium counterpart. The difference between the formyl- and the acetylpyridine azine-based ligands (R 3 = H or CH 3 , correspondingly) is by far not as clear as for the copper(II) complexes, strongly dependent on the cell line and the substituent R 2 . Interestingly, variation of substituents R 3 had no pronounced effect on cytotoxic activity. Copper(II) complexes with ligands L6a,b and L6i–n were by far the most active of the whole series,
614 MODERATE CDK INHIBITORS TO POTENTIAL ANTITUMOR DRUGS 5.0 4.5
4.0 3.5
3.0 2.5
2.0 1.5
1.0 0.5
0.0 L6g
L6c L6d
L6e L6f
L6m L6n
L6a L6b
L6i L6j
L6k L6l
IC 50 value ( μ M) Ligand Ru(II) Os(II)
Cu(II) Metal center 0.57 2.9
2.3 0.3
0.51 0.8 1.2
2.3 1.5
0.8 0.67
1.3 1.0
0.64 0.83
0.47 0.44
2.1 5.0
0.02 0.1
0.03 0.02
1.0 0.05
0.03 0.33
0.38 Figure 45.10 IC 50 values of indoloquinoline-based complexes [Cu(L6)Cl 2 ] (Cu(II), dark gray bars), [Ru(p-cymene)(L6)Cl]Cl (Ru(II), light gray bars), and [Os(p-cymene)(L6)Cl]Cl (Os(II), black bars), on the human colon carcinoma cell line SW480, as obtained by the MTT assay after 96 h incubation time. with IC 50
group of the 2-acetylpyridine moiety caused a fivefold increase in cytotoxicity [59], this effect is even more evident in the indoloquinoline-based complexes. Differences of one order of magnitude were detected in A549 and CH1 human cancer cell lines, while a 50-fold increase in SW480 colon carcinoma cell line was outstanding [71], as can be seen in Fig. 45.10. These findings clearly show that a careful selection of the (i) metal center, (ii) the ligands, and (iii) exploring the metal–ligand interactions are essential for biological utility of the resulting complexes.
Novel strategies have been developed for the effective delivery of the anticancer drugs to the desired tumor tissue to improve their selectivity and, consequently, to reduce their side effects [72–76]. By exploration of these targeting strategies, cancer nanotherapeutics based on polymers (polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, or dendrimers), lipids (liposomes, nanocapsules), viruses (viral nanoparticles), or carbon nanotubes, an enhancement of the intracellular concentration of drugs in cancer cells can be easily achieved, usually without being blocked by P-glycoprotein, a plasma membrane protein responsible for drug efflux from cells and involved in multidrug resistance (MDR) [74]. These emerging approaches have been mainly applied to organic anticancer drugs (e.g., doxorubicin, paclitaxel) [72] and clinically used inorganic platinum drugs [76], although examples of conjugation of organoruthenium compounds to recombinant human serum albumin (rHSA), an effective drug delivery system [77], with a marked increase in cytotoxicity have also been recently reported [78–80]. Targeted delivery of anticancer drugs will continue to be an important research field for cancer therapy in the future [81]. A large number of homing peptides (HPs) and cell-penetrating homing peptides (CPHPs) targeting specific cells via molecular recognition events have been discovered by using phage-display technology, by exploring synthetic peptide libraries (SPLs) or by applying a direct targeting approach [82–84]. Some of the discovered peptides have entered clinical trials, as for example, the tumor HP asparagine-glycine-arginine (NGR) which recognizes and binds an aminopeptidase that is overexpressed on tumor blood vessels, or cyclo[Arg-Gly-Asp-D-Phe-(NMeVal)], also referred to as cRGD or Cilengitide, an antiangiogenic agent showing affinity to α v β 3 and α v β 5 integrins, and have been used for selective delivery of clinically used organic drugs, while others, for example, F3, a 31-aa CPHP that targets nuclei of tumor cells [85] or BMHP1 (PFSSTKT) showing affinity to neural stem cells have not yet been linked to any druglike compound [82, 86, 87]. Arg 5 and Arg
8 conjugates of the organoosmium(II) complex [( η 6
into human ovarian cancer cells A2780, by a factor of 2 and 10, respectively [88], while a cobaltocenium-SV4-40T antigen nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptide conjugate has shown a significant accumulation in the nucleus of HepG2 cells [89]. Conjugation of biological targeting peptides, for example, bombesin derivatives, to copper(II) bis(thiosemicarbazonates)
REFERENCES 615 [90] or copper(II) complexes with hexaaminemacrobicyclic cage ligands [91, 92], also known as sarcophagines, which are remarkably thermodynamically stable, proved to be very promising in terms of their potential application as targeted PET tracers for noninvasive diagnostic imaging. We expect the exploration of similar approaches in cancer chemotherapy for targeted delivery of coordination and organometallic compounds with biologically active ligands such as indolobenzazepines and indoloquinolines to diseased tissues in the nearest future. The carboxylate group in position 9 and 8, respectively, of indolobenzazepines and indoloquinolines is well suited as site of attachment for cancer-targeting peptides. Advances in synthetic coordination and organometallic chemistry, as well as in peptide-coupling methodologies in conjunction with modern analytical separation techniques will continue to play the pivotal role in realization of these challenging tasks. The large heterogeneity of tumor cells, even of the same type, emerging on tumor development due to additional mutations, is the basis for the implementation of personalized therapy [10]. Rapid screening and identification of patient- and tumor- specific CPHPs, which is becoming reality with the development of novel peptide screening technologies in conjunction with next-generation peptide sequencing techniques, makes the implementation of personalized approach feasible [82]. Development of multifunctional nanoparticles or “heterofunctional conjugates” for simultaneous real-time in vivo imaging and targeted delivery of drugs for cancer treatment will contribute to this exciting future direction as well [74]. Experimental evidence has just been reported by three different groups of researchers that cancer stem cells (CSC) exist [93–95]. The published data indicate that a small population of stem cells sustains tumor growth and that by killing the right type of cell the cancer disease can, in principle, be cured. This CSC hypothesis can conceptually change the evaluation of the efficacy of chemotherapy and the way of development of antitumor agents [96]. Taking this paradigm shift into account [94], much effort focused on cancer stem cells investigation and potential drug candidates capable to kill them is expected in the nearest future.
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