Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART VII ORGANOMETALLIC ELECTROCHEMISTRY
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PART VII
ORGANOMETALLIC ELECTROCHEMISTRY 631 47 ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND SUPRAMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS OF “FERROCIFEN” ANTICANCER DRUGS WITH CYCLODEXTRINS AND LIPID BILAYERS: AN ELECTROCHEMICAL OVERVIEW Olivier Buriez * , Eric Labb´e, and Christian Amatore D´epartement de Chimie, Ecole Normale Sup´erieure, Paris, France 47.1 INTRODUCTION Breast cancer is a predominant form of cancer among western women, with an incidence of one case per eight women [1]. The standard reference for endocrine therapy related to this disease is tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), which was introduced in cancer therapy during the early 1970s, although it had originally been envisioned as a potent contraceptive drug (Fig. 47.1). Tamoxifen is widely prescribed for patients diagnosed with hormone-dependent breast cancers, namely, those targeting cells in which the estrogen receptor (ER) is present (ER( +)) (Scheme 47.1). The antiproliferative action of the hydroxylated form of tamoxifen (2 in Fig. 47.1) arises primarily from its competitive binding to the ER, which represses estradiol- mediated DNA transcription [2]. Unfortunately, some breast cancer cells are resistant to tamoxifen because they either do not express ER (classified as ER( −)) or have developed resistance following prolonged exposure to the drug. Hence, tamoxifen remains ineffective against 40% of breast cancers and several negative effects have been identified, such as a higher risk for endometrial cancer as well as a risk of developing blood clots in the lung [3]. The search for drugs combining antiestrogenicity and cytotoxicity to fight both ER( +) and ER(−) breast cancers is therefore of high relevance [4, 5]. Cisplatin, the pioneer metal-containing antitumoral drug, has recently proved to be an alternative in the treatment of a subgroup of hard-to-treat breast cancers [6]. However, it is inefficient against platinum-resistant tumors and has severe side effects such as nephrotoxicity. From the chemical point of view, the Pt–N coordination bond in cisplatin and its derivatives is too weak and it appeared that the metal is not always stable to reach its target because it hydrolyzes too quickly and is too bulky in size [7]. In this context, organometallic compounds, which are defined as metal complexes containing at least one direct covalent metal–carbon bond have recently been reconsidered as potent anticancer drug candidates [8]. Accordingly, Jaouen and coworkers [9–11] proposed a new class of molecules possessing both a ferrocenyl unit and a tamoxifen-like diphenyl methylene skeleton (see, for instance, compound 3 in Fig. 47.1). The antiproliferative activity of a variety of these compounds has been established in both hormone-dependent and hormone-independent breast cancer cell lines [12–15]. Importantly, the replacement of the phenyl by a ferrocene group in complex 2 exalted the cytotoxicity of the latter [11, 16]. Ferrocene by itself is not particularly toxic nor does it play a significant biological role. Conversely, the ferricenium cation, obtained by the one-electron oxidation of ferrocene, was the first iron compound for which an antiproliferative effect was demonstrated on certain types of cancer cells [17]. On the other hand, it is known that the quinone methide (QM) obtained by oxidation Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
634 FERROCIFENS: AN ELECTROCHEMICAL OVERVIEW O (CH 2
2 N(CH
3 ) 2 O (CH 2 ) 2 N(CH
3 ) 2 OH OH Fe O (CH 2 ) 3 N(CH
3 ) 2 1 3 2 Figure 47.1 Structures of tamoxifen 1, its active metabolite (4-hydroxytamoxifen, 2), and the corresponding ferrocifen 3. OH OH
OH OH Fe OH Fe NH 2 Fe Fe OH OH Fe HO OH OH Fe OH OH Fe Fe Fe OH OH
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Fe HN O O (CH
2 ) 2 N(CH 3 ) 2 O (CH
2 ) 2 N(CH 3 ) 2 OH OH Fe O (CH
2 ) 3 N(CH 3 ) 2 1 3 2 Scheme 47.1 Chemical structures of complexes 1–14. of the 4-hydroxytamoxifen (2 in Fig. 47.1) may damage cancer cells by adduct formation with glutathione or nucleobases [18]. In this context, the redox properties of ferrocifens, possessing both a ferrocene group and a π-conjugated tamoxifen skeleton, appeared as a key issue in the understanding of their oxidative metabolism. To reach this goal, a series of ferrocifens was synthetized and electrochemically investigated to characterize not only their reactivity but also the conditions related to their administration, that is, their solubilization/vectorization in the presence of cyclodextrins (CDs), as well as their ability to incorporate into or cross lipid bilayers, an issue which has been first addressed using planar lipid bilayer-modified electrodes. DECIPHERING THE ACTIVATION SEQUENCE OF FERROCIFENS 635 47.2 DECIPHERING THE ACTIVATION SEQUENCE OF FERROCIFENS 47.2.1 Ferrociphenols Ferrocifens possessing at least one phenol group are called ferrociphenols. These compounds have been the most investigated in vitro and in vivo because they exhibit both endocrine and cytotoxic strong activities. In vitro studies established that the cytotoxicity of ferrociphenols arises from the presence of both a tamoxifen backbone and a ferrocenyl unit [19]. For instance, the antiproliferative effect of compound 3 (Fig. 47.1) against a hormone-independent breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB231) was found 60 times higher than for the active metabolite of tamoxifen (2 in Fig. 47.1) evidencing the dramatic effect cytotoxicity associated to the presence of the ferrocene group linked to a tamoxifen-like structure. In summary, the motif [Fc]-[conjugated spacer]-p-[phenol] was considered crucial for strong cytotoxic effects. In order to connect the cytotoxicity to a coherent physicochemical frame, a series of ferrocifens, not possessing the dimethylamino chain (which is assumed to only allow the antiestrogenic effect), was investigated. Considering that the oxidation sequence of ferrocifens most likely involved the oxidizable ferrocene and phenol functions, electrochemical methods appeared appropriate to monitor the evolution of these compounds. Electrochemical studies were performed in model environments where pyridine or imidazole were used as base models, as their pK a values are similar to those of peptide, or DNA nitrogen intracellular bases. Under these conditions, a correlation between the cytotoxic activity of ferrocifens and their electrochemical behavior was observed [20]. Figure 47.2 compares the typical electrochemical behaviors obtained for representative cytotoxic and noncytotoxic compounds. In the absence of any added base, both compounds exhibited voltammograms characteristic of the ferrocene/ferricenium (Fc/Fc ·+
π-conjugated with phenol moieties, the Fc/Fc ·+ redox potential was not affected. This indicated that the degree of intramolecular cross-talk was minimal presumably because of the too large separation between the standard redox potentials of the two redox moieties. However, two distinct evolutions were observed when pyridine was added. Very little change was observed in the cyclic voltammograms upon the addition of pyridine for compounds that showed slight or no cytotoxic effects in vitro (Fig. 47.2a). Conversely, the addition of pyridine caused two major changes to the voltammograms of the biologically active compounds (Fig. 47.2b). First, the Fc/Fc ·+ system became irreversible at low scan rates, indicating that the ferricenium cation engaged in a chemical sequence prior to the reverse sweep. The loss of reversibility was accompanied by an increase of the Fc oxidation wave peak current, featuring the passage from a monoelectronic to a multielectronic oxidation process upon addition of a base. A new wave appeared simultaneously at a more positive potential value (wave O 2 ). The multielectronic sequence triggered upon addition of the Fe OH OH −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.4 0.5
0.6 I ( μ A) E (V vs SCE) + Pyridine Cytotoxic MeOH – 100 mV/s O 1
2 Fe −0.2 0 0.2
0.4 0.6
0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.4 0.5
0.6 I ( μ A) E (V vs SCE) Not cytotoxic + Pyridine Fe OH OH MeOH – 100 mV/s O 1
1 (5) (6) (4) (a)
(b) Figure 47.2 Typical cyclic voltammograms of cytotoxic (b) and noncytotoxic (a) ferrocifens (2 mM in 0.1 M Bu 4 NBF
4 /MeOH) obtained in the absence and the presence of pyridine used as a base model. Electrode: Pt, 0.5 mm diameter; scan rate 0.5 V/s. (See insert for color
636 FERROCIFENS: AN ELECTROCHEMICAL OVERVIEW base appeared to involve both the ferricenium cation and the phenol function, considering the inertness of the nonphenolic compound 5 to pyridine (Fig. 47.2a). Since the unconjugated compound 6 was also unaffected by the presence of pyridine, the oxidation sequence of biologically and electrochemically “active” ferrociphenols such as (4) undoubtedly featured an intramolecular electron transfer between the phenol (donor) and the ferricenium center (acceptor), made possible through a slight coupling in the conjugated π-system. A further electrochemical experiment to support this interpretation was performed using a mixture of ferrocene and 1,1-di-p-hydroxyphenyl-2-phenylbut-1-ene in pyridine/MeOH. Under these conditions, the Fc/Fc
·+ couple remained reversible, and a wave was observed at a more positive potential (circa 1 V/SCE), typical of the direct electrochemical oxidation of phenols. This evidenced the important role of the intramolecular π-conjugation in the oxidation of 4 and related species. We proposed the following proton-coupled intramolecular electron-transfer mechanism to explain the origin of the cytotoxicity of the ferrociphenol compounds (Fig. 47.3) [20]. This is written for sake of simplicity as an EC sequence although one may envision that pyridine coordination to the phenol precedes the oxidation [chemical– electrochemical (CE) sequence] or that the electron and proton transfers are concerted. Anyway, beyond these mechanistic subtleties, it is important that in the presence of a base, oxidation of 4 gives rise to a phenoxy radical coupled electronically to the ferrocene. In summary, the oxidation sequence starts with the oxidation of the ferrocene, the charge of the resulting ferricenium being only very slightly delocalized over the π-system of the molecule, which in fine makes the hydroxy group more acidic, prone to react with a pyridine base [21]. The resulting phenoxy radical shows many mesomeric structures, one of the most stable being the quinoid in which the radical is positioned on the α-carbon with respect to the ferrocene moiety. This species is prone to be readily oxidized at the potential value of the starting compound in agreement with a peak current increase of the first oxidation wave according to a second proton-coupled electron transfer located on the ethyl group, resulting in a QM formation. The latter was found to be oxidizable at wave O 2 as verified with an authentic QM. The ferrocifen cytotoxicity must then certainly proceed through the production of a QM, a strong electrophile known to damage cells by adduct formation with DNA, GSH (glutathione), or proteins [18]. From the electrochemical point of view, − e Fe OH OH Fe + OH OH Fe OH OH • + − pyH + Fe O • OH Fe O OH Fe O OH − e/pyH + −0.2 0 0.2
0.4 0.6
0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.4 0.5
0.6 I (μ A)
QM MeOH – 100 mV/s O 2 (QM) • Figure 47.3 Proposed mechanism for transformation of a ferrociphenol to the corresponding quinone methide species in the presence of pyridine.
DECIPHERING THE ACTIVATION SEQUENCE OF FERROCIFENS 637 −0.1 0.0
0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4
0.5 0.6
0.7 0.8
0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4
0.5 0.6
0.7 0.8
−0.4 −0.2
0.0 0.2
0.4 0.6
0.8 1.0
1.2 1.4
E (V vs SCE) E (V vs SCE) 1 3 4 2 5 6 I (μ A) + Imidazole I (μ A) −15 −5 5 15 25 35 45 (a)
(b) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 + Imidazole (7) (7) OH OH Fe Fe
(a) Cyclic Voltammograms of 7 (0.9 mM) in acetonitrile/TBABF 4 (0.1 M) with increasing concentration of imidazole: (1) 0, (2) 0.9, (3) 4.5, (4) 18, (5) 90, and (6) 560 mM (dashed curve). Electrode: Pt, 0.5 mm diameter; scan rate 100 mV/s. (b) Cyclic voltammograms of compound 7 (0.9 mM) in acetonitrile/TBABF 4 (0.1 M) with increasing concentration of imidazole: (1) 0, (2) 0.9, (3) 4.5, (4) 18, (5) 90, and (6) 720 mM (dashed curve). Electrode: Pt, 0.5 mm diameter; scan rate: 75 V/s. we showed that the presence of the ferrocene unit allows the facile oxidation of the phenol group, which proceeds at less positive potential values than for the tamoxifen analog. In other words, the ferrocene acts as an intramolecular oxidation “antenna” and may oxidize the phenol group through an intramolecular pathway [22], thus producing the biologically active QM in milder oxidizing conditions. In order to strengthen the proposed mechanism, the electrochemical behavior of ferrocifen 7, substituted with two methyl groups on each side of the hydroxyl group, was investigated (Fig. 47.4) [23]. With this compound it was indeed expected that the inductive effect of the ortho-methyl substituents would stabilize the radical intermediates, facilitate their detection, and incidentally create a protective effect against condensation reactions. In this respect, it is worth recalling that radical cations of cresols and resorcinols are more easily formed and more acidic than their phenol analogs [24]. Similarly, a recent calorimetric study established that the enthalpy of formation of o-methylphenoxyl radicals has a value that is circa 40 kJ/mol more negative than that of phenoxyl radicals [25]. At low scan rate, in the absence of a base, and as observed for compound 4, the voltammogram of 7 exhibited a reversible oxidation wave corresponding to the ferrocene/ferricenium redox couple. Upon addition of increasing amounts of imidazole, used as the base model, the intensity of the oxidation wave dramatically increased and progressively split, leading ultimately to two distinct peaks at large imidazole excesses (Fig. 47.4a). The determination of the absolute number of electrons involved at the second oxidation wave was circa 3, which was consistent with the bielectronic formation of the QM followed by a one-electron oxidation of its ferrocene group. More importantly, a new reduction wave could be evidenced during the backward scans by repeating the same experiment at higher scan rates (Fig. 47.4b). This new wave located at 0.2 V could not be ascribed to any reversibility of the oxidation waves and exhibited a peculiar behavior with the base concentration. For example, at 75 V/s, this new species was only observed between 5 and 100 M equiv of base. This behavior is characteristic of a transient intermediate whose concentration was both time and base dependent. This result suggested that the new reduction wave corresponded to the reduction of the carbocation obtained after the one-electron oxidation of this radical. At large base excesses and/or moderate timescales (low scan rates range), this cation is fully deprotonated to afford the QM and its reduction may not be observed any longer. Similarly, at extremely fast scan rates and/or low base concentration range it is not produced in sufficient amounts. Conversely, at intermediate base concentrations and/or time windows, the carbocation is still produced and has a sufficient lifetime for its reduction to be observable during the backward voltammetric scan (Fig. 47.5). 638 FERROCIFENS: AN ELECTROCHEMICAL OVERVIEW − e
7d + − e − , 0.22V
Im ImH
+ − e − , 0.39 V
7 ImH
+ 7 •
7b •
+ 7d Im Fe OH OH + Fe OH Fe • + O • Fe O Fe + O Fe O Fe O Fe +
Figure 47.5 Detailed oxidation sequence of ferrociphenol 7. To further characterize the transient species successively formed during the two-electron oxidation of the ferrociphenol to its QM, EPR was used to monitor the fate of the paramagnetic species generated upon addition of imidazole to the electrogenerated ferricenium. This study performed in collaboration with D. Mansuy’s group revealed the passage between the electrogenerated Fe III (ferricenium) to a carbon-centered radical upon addition of imidazole; the corresponding radical was then observed to decay, being oxidized to yield QM, the biologically active species [23]. Finally, and of importance, the formation of the QM has been confirmed under biological conditions. Indeed, this QM was formed upon metabolism of the ferrocifen by rat liver microsomes. Furthermore, the corresponding freshly synthesized QM was found to be toxic against MDA-MB-231 cells. This strongly suggests that QMs are the actual active drug obtained along the oxidation sequence of ferrociphenols, being formed inside the cells whenever oxidation of the ferrocifen phenolic prodrug can be oxidized. Since the threshold for such oxidation is imposed by the Fc/Fc ·+ couple, this appears a facile process in cells with a high oxidation state such as many cancer cells [26]. Thus the oxidative sequence in Fig. 47.5 is certainly playing a major role in the anticancer properties of ferrocenyl phenols [27]. 47.2.2 Ferrocenyl Catechols Ferrocenyl catechols 8 and 9 also exhibited interesting cytotoxic activities. On MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines, the catechol compounds displayed a similar or greater antiproliferative potency (IC 50 values ranging from 0.48 to 1.21 μM) than their corresponding phenolic analogs (0.57–12.7 μM) in complete agreement with their easiest oxidation [28]. The electrochemical behavior of 8 and 9 was explored by cyclic voltammetry in acetonitrile (Fig. 47.6). In the absence of a base, the one-electron oxidation of 8 occurred at 0.42 V. In agreement with the behavior of the corresponding phenolic analogs, this electrochemical step featured the reversible oxidation of the ferrocene group (Fc) to ferricenium (Fc + ). In
the presence of an imidazole excess, two oxidation steps were observed. A nearly two-electron irreversible oxidation peak appeared, the potential of which shifted toward less positive values as the imidazole concentration increased. Another peak located at 0.52 V featured a one-electron reversible oxidation process, its potential being independent of base concentration. The cyclic voltammograms obtained with 9 under the same conditions were akin to those for 8 (Fig. 47.6b). Except for the fact that no reduction wave featuring the reduction of a transient α-cation, the behavior was extremely similar to that described above for the mono-phenol. Hence, by analogy to what was observed with ferrociphenols, the oxidation sequence most likely yielded an o-quinone (OQ) instead of the QM due to the easy oxidation of the second hydroxyl, as featured in Fig. 47.7 [28]. In the absence of imidazole, only the reversible one-electron oxidation of 8 and 9 (step (A) in Fig. 47.7) is observed. In the presence of excess imidazole, a fast two-electron oxidation sequence occurred according to steps (A) + (B) +
(C). At low scan rates (Fig. 47.6), the potential dependence of this bielectronic wave with excess imidazole featured the thermodynamically and kinetically favored passage from a monoelectronic Fc oxidation to a proton-coupled bielectronic |
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