Comparative stylistics

COMPARATIVE STYLISTICS

Comparative stylistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language.

It analyses the stylistic resources not inherent in a separate language but at the crossroads of two languages, or two literatures and is obviously linked to the theory of translation.

The objective of comparative stylistics is to study the stylistic characteristics of one language in comparison with those of another one. This systematic study offers a better and deeper knowledge of the features that distinguish one language from another.

There are several basic means of lingual comparison - transposition, modulation and equivalence — in addition to four others, which are borrowing, tracing (“calque”), literal translation and adaptation, constitute the seven techniques of translation.

Since the comparison of two languages requires primarily the performance of translation, we can assert that comparative stylistics is subsequent to translation and not prior to it. Therefore, the seven techniques are no more than means of comparison.

It appears that, to translate some expression into another language, one would immediately look for its functional equivalent rather than think of the “technique” to be used, whether it is transposition, modulation or equivalence. As a matter of fact, if the translator fails to find the appropriate equivalent, it will be useless to know that this kind of transfer is called “modulation” from a comparative viewpoint. The same thing applies, of course, to the other techniques offered by comparative stylistics.

Moreover, comparative stylistics usually suggests only one equivalent among several possible equivalents of a lexical unit or expression.

Finally, it appears that comparative stylistics, which is mainly interested in establishing correspondences and equivalences in two languages, does not go beyond the limit of language as a whole to reach the mobility of speech and usage.

Hence, it can neither foretell the most appropriate equivalents for expressions in context nor embrace all potential cases of translation within the ever-renewable act of communication. The field of translation is indeed far from being limited or confined to linguistic facts, idiomatic expressions or correspondences that may constitute the subject of a comparative study.

Comparative Study of Functional Styles

(4 h.)
Issues for discussion

Functional Style as an Object of Study of General and Comparative Stylistics.

Comparative-stylistic Aspects of Scientific Texts

Comparative-stylistic Aspects of News Media (Newspaper) Texts

Key Words

Comparative-stylistic analysis, functional style, texts, guidelines, functions, style features, imagery, tenor, emotiveness, directivity, modality, compression, stylistic means, stylistic modification.

Functional-stylistic aspect of comparative stylistics has not been well investigated. A great number of issues concerning the comparative study of the stylistic properties of the texts belonging to different functional styles in two and more languages still remain unresolved. Generally, comparative study of functional styles focuses on the description of common and distinctive features of the different languages in terms of their stylistic differentiation, textual representation, regularities of functioning of stylistically relevant language means, as well as extralinguistic style forming factors.

Functional style is a very complicated linguistic phenomenon. Primarily it is characterized by the variety of interpretations.

According to J. Swift, proper word in proper places make a true definition of style.

According to M. Riffaterre, style is an emphasis (expressive, effective or aesthetic) added to the information conveyed by the linguistic structure.

According to R. Jackobson, style in language is choice and the result of choice.

V.V. Vinogradov defined style as a coordinated, interrelated and interconditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication.

V.V. Vinogradov's understanding of the concept of style was reflected in I.R. Galperin's definition: "A functional style of language is a system of language means which serves a definite aim in communication".

Scientific Texts (Scientific/Academic Style). The main function is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of development, existence, relations between different phenomena, etc.

The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality, the form of expression is the most generalized one. The most typical features are as following: 1. logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence, with a developed system of connectives 2. The use of terms specific to each branch of science. 3. Vocabulary is direct, used in primary logical meaning. 4. Sentence — patterns may be of three types: postulatory (self-evident and needing no proof), argumentative and formulative. 5. The use of quotations and references. 6. Foot-notes are digressive in character.7. Impersonality of writing, revealed in a frequent use of passive constructions.

English, Russian and Uzbek differ greatly in grammatical structure. Moreover, in English there if a stable word order and grammatical correspondence of words is quite different from Russian.

Compared to Russian and Uzbek, in English the use of nouns derived from verbs is rarely met. Due to that fact the word for word translation from Russian or Uzbek into English appears to be very complicated and unreadable.

Compared to the scientific texts in Russian and Uzbek, English ones are more compact, simple, active, emotional, and conversational, distance between the author and the reader is minimal and reduced by a direct access to it and the lower level of modality.

In order to avoid mistakes in writing scientific articles, we should follow a number of guidelines:

replace the nouns derived from verbs with the verbal forms (constructions). E.g. launching international projects, describing and explaining experimental data;

to avoid using complex genitive constructions such as in Russian – «возможность определения путей решения проблемы»;

to partition the long sentences;

to try to avoid using the word such as which, that in compound sentences and connect the clauses with words like when, where, then, but, and.

One of the most frequent stylistic mistakes in translating from Russian into English is an excessive use of the pronoun “of”. To avoid using this pronoun we may follow the several rules:

to use attributive groups i.e. the nouns as attributes. E.g. a group of transformations vs. a transformation group; results of research vs. research results.

To use the gerunds or infinitives instead of nouns derived from verbs. E.g. Воспользуемся комплексным методом для построения группы трансформаций чего-либо – Let us use the complex method for constructing/to construct the transformation group of something.

to replace the “of”, if it is possible, for the other one close in meaning. E.g. equations of shallow waves / equations for shallow waves

to use possessive construction E.g. roots of equation/equations’ roots.

One more principal feature of stylistic character in English in comparison with Russian is the specific use of negative constructions: E.g. не позволять сделать вывод – to be inconclusive; не придавать значения – to overlook; не требовать объяснения – self-explanatory; не выходить за пределы – to stay within.

Comparative Stylistics and Translation Theory

(2 h.)
Issues for discussion
Comparative Stylistics and Translation Theory as Separate Linguistic Disciplines

The Issues of Interrelationship: Methodological Basis and Data of Research

Key Words

Comparative stylistics, translation theory, linguistic discipline, interlingual communication, theoretical data, practical application, principal tasks.
Comparative stylistics and translation theory are interrelated but separate (not identical) linguistics disciplines.

Comparative Stylistics and Translation Theory have common methodological basis which is characterized by the comparison of linguistic data on the level of contexts.

This common methodological basis indicates the close relationship between the two disciplines.

Comparative stylistics and translation theory should not be regarded as identical disciplines since they differ fundamentally in the object of study and in the specific character of principal tasks.

The object of translation studies is a translation as a specific means or interlingual communication. The aim of translation theory is to reveal the significance, models, mechanisms and extralinguistic factors influencing the process of translation, as well as the norms of regulation.

The general aim of comparative stylistics is to investigate the stylistic characteristics of one language in comparison with those of another one.

Thus, care should be taken not to confuse them.

Comparative stylistics and translation theory have common aspects of study – data (materials) of research (original texts and texts in translation) and common methods of research.

Using the translation data, comparative stylistics fixes the main semantic-stylistic principles of transference from one language to the other.

According to A. Malblanc, whereas comparative stylistics is concerned with a comparative study of the texts of the same content, translation serves as its basic research tool. Comparative stylistics provides the new data for translation by enriching it with a considerable amount of theoretical information.

According to J. Vinay and J. Darbelnet, translation and comparative stylistics are proximate scientific fields but their tasks are quite different. Comparative stylistics is based on translation and aims at establishing its own laws and principles. As a result, translator applies the established laws and principles to the process of translation. It follows from this fact that translation is a ractical application of comparative stylistics.

The proximate relationship between comparative stylistics and translation as a practical experience can be established by the following two aspects: on the one hand, translation serves a major source of material necessary for comparative stylistics, on the other hand, translation is a practical application of the regularities and principles obtained in the process of comparative stylistic study.

Comparative stylistic can explain the process of translation in terms of stylistics characteristics and sets forth “laws valid to the languages concerned”.

Due to the fact that the specialized and advanced learning necessarily involves academic courses such as translation theory and comparative stylistic, these disciplines should not be confused.

Finally, the aim of comparative stylistics is contrastive, while that of translation theory and practice if communicative.

According to the opinion of some scholars, comparative stylistics if considered as subsequent to translation and not prior to it, since the comparison of the two languages requires primarily the performance of translation.

Sources

Гак В.Г. О сопоставительной стилистике // Методы сопоставительного изучения языков. – М., – С. 48 – 53.

Федоров А.В. Очерки общей и сопоставительной стилистики. – М., 1971.

Швейцер А.Д. Контрастивная стилистика. Газетно-публицистический стиль в английском и русском языках. – М.,1993.

Malblanc A. Stylistique comparée du français et de l’allemande. Paris, 1961.

Vinay J.P., Darbelnet J. Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais. Méthode de traduction. Paris, 1958.

Shveitser A. D. Contrastive stylistics: news media style in English and in Russian. Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 1997.

The majority of issues within comparative stylistics have not been well investigated and their further research is urgently required in the context of modern linguistics development.

The main tasks of comparative stylistics may be outlined as follows:

to define and fix the common and distinctive features of the language units in two and more languages in terms of their expressiveness, emotiveness, imagery, and evaluation;

to study the differences and similarities of the functional styles in two and more languages;

to carry out the comparative study of systematic relationship between language units which are used in various spheres of communication and to define the principles of selection, combinability and arrangement of language means in the texts.

The basic factors that determine the formation and development of comparative stylistics are as follows:

active processes including the change of knowledge paradigms within linguistics;

widening of the range of comparative linguistics;

the increasing needs for translation of various types of texts from one language into the other (adequacy level);

increasing needs to enrich the theoretical and practical aspects of teaching foreign languages;

Traditionally comparative stylistics is divided into two main aspects – structural comparative stylistics and functional comparative stylistics.

Structural comparative stylistics studies the stylistic means of two and more languages on the basis of levels of language hierarchy (phonetic-phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactical). It aims at defining the similarities and differences of stylistic colourings of language units, stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary, stylistic-semantic features of expressive means and stylistic devices etc. Generally, structural comparative stylistics deals with the problems of “stylistic resources” of two and more languages.

Functional comparative stylistics studies the functional-stylistic differentiation of two and more languages. It concentrates on common and distinctive features of functional styles, genres, types of speech within two and more languages.

The theoretical and practical foundations of comparative stylistics were first proposed by C. Bally in his scientific research on the issues of French stylistics (1909). C. Bally used the term “stylistique externe” (outer/external/overt stylistics) which was understood as comparative stylistics.

C. Bally is considered to be the fonder of comparative stylistics since he as proclaimed the idea of comparative study of stylistic aspects of native and foreign languages. C. Bally was the first to define the general program of contrastive-stylistic investigations. But due to the absence of differentiation between comparative stylistics and other linguistic disciplines, his program remained unrealized.

Many years later the issues of comparative stylistics were thoroughly investigated in the works by A.Malblanc (1968), J. Vinay and J. Darbelnet (1977), Y.S. Stepanov (1965), A.V. Fyodorov (1971), K.A. Dolinin, A.D. Shveitser (1993), V.G. Gak (1988).

According to A.V. Fyodorov, comparative stylistics is based on the comparison of both the original texts and the texts in translation. The object of comparative stylistics may be presented by the differences in terms of the use of language means: archaisms and barbarisms, grammatical forms and types of sentences or language means belonging to the same functional style.

The fact that comparative stylistics may cover the data of two types – texts in translation and original texts allows us to point out the two relatively independent branches. Each of these two branches is distinguished by its own principal tasks and proper methods to solve these tasks.

The branch dealing with the comparison of original texts

The branch dealing with the comparison of texts in translation.

These two branches have principal differences in terms of their relation to the theory of translation.

While the first branch that deals with the comparison of original texts has a microlinguistic character, by contrast the second branch (dealing with the comparison of texts in translation) is of macrolinguisic character since it is closely connected with theory of translation and takes into consideration both linguistic and extralinguistic (culture-specific) factors.

The results achieved within the branch of comparative stylistics which studies the texts in translation can be used in solving a great number of practical tasks and consequently relates to the applied disciplines of linguistics.

The branch of comparative stylistics dealing with the comparison of texts in translation can be regarded as both descriptive and normative discipline since the rules of and directions that are followed in the process of comparative study are made on the basis of a high-quality/correct translation. As a result of establishing the new rules there can be elaborated the general etalon which helps to evaluate the translation and develop recommendations for it.