Content Introduction Chapter-i 3 Analytical Tools for Grammatical Meaning

2.2 Grammatical meaning and grammatical category.
There are many different ways to present:
Repetitions: «mountain» (Japanese. Y deep), «mountains» (Japanese 々 yamayama).
Terminations, prefixes, suffixes: «mol» - «mol».
Additional number: «person» - «people».
Vocalization change (called «broken plurality»): «Arabic. Book» - «book», «pole» - «books».
Some authors consider counting words (number, classifier) ​​to be plural, for example, in the expressions «forty heads of cattle», «three loaves of bread» the words «head», «shell» are numbers. This view is not generally accepted.
There are many different ways to present:
Repetitions: «mountain» (Japanese. Y deep), «mountains» (Japanese 々 yamayama).
Terminations, prefixes, suffixes: «mol» - «mol».
Additional number: «person» - «people».
Vocalization change (called «broken plurality»): «Arabic. Book» - «book», «pole» - «books».
Some authors consider counting words (number, classifier) ​​to be plural, for example, in the expressions «forty heads of cattle», «three loaves of bread» the words «head», «shell» are numbers. This view is not generally accepted.
Languages ​​that do not have a grammatical category of number, however, have all the potential to convey quantitative meaning. This is usually done by adding words similar to Russian «one», «two», «several», «each», «many» and so on. Quantitative meaning in Russian can be given in two ways or through a combination of them: “fleas are small”, “each flea is small”, “all fleas are small”. In some languages, for example in Hungarian, the plural is not combined with other ways of expressing the quantity: virág «flower»; virágok «flowers»; hat virág «six flowers».
In Russian, in addition to singular and plural, there are the following numerical events:
the total number of horses corresponding to the plural adjectives (teeth, sons, stakes, knees, leaves, roots against pl. h teeth, sons, cola, knees, leaves, roots), see. ancient Slavic leaves, stones, roots, bratria;
the total number of horses corresponding to the adjectives in the unit (idiots, animal vs. pl. h idiots, animals), but, formed, apparently, similar to the former;
a plural (sand, water, running) representing the sum of the volumes or species of an infinite horse.
In Russian, other words explaining plurals and quantities without numbers can have the following meanings:
«More than one»: «teenagers entered our entrance» = «several teenagers entered our entrance»;
«Each»: «electrons have a negative charge» = «each electron has a negative charge»;
«Typical»: «birds can fly» = «birds can fly»;
«Each of the above»: «Ivan and Peter came to us. The guests turned out to be nice people»;
«Majority»: «Germans voted in a referendum to abolish the presidency»;
«Large group»: «cockroaches can make house life unbearable»;
general concept: “birds are a class of vertebrates” (although not a single bird is a class);
some games: «catch», «hide», etc .;
some things: «forks», «pants», «scissors», «watches», etc .;
Grammatical meaning
Grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of a word; The differences between these two value types are as follows:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they describe large word groups. For example, the meaning of a verb form is always present in the semantic structure of a Russian verb. Lexical meaning is more specific than grammatical meaning, so it only describes a specific specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. Lexical meaning is the root word, grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (hence grammatical meanings are often called formal).
Thus, grammatical meaning is an abstract linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, in the phrase I wolf would gnaw out byurokraty (M.), the word wolf means impartiality, vitality, masculinity, grammatical meanings. unity The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general category); the meanings of objectivity, quantity, etc. in the horse are as follows.
The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and concretized by separate (private-categorical) grammatical meanings; hence, the horse is characterized by special-categorical grammatical meanings such as animality ~ inanimate, gender, number, and case.
Grammatical meaning does not always accompany lexicon, and lexicon does not always accompany grammatical meaning.
For example: oman is a person (lexical meaning is different, but grammatically the same - horse, unit, I.p)
Methods of expressing grammatical meanings

Expressions of grammatical meanings in different ways available in Russian morphology, viz. Methods of word formation: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually represented by affixation, the presence or absence of affixes (e.g., table, desk; walk, walk; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), less often - changing sounds and stress (dying - dying; oils - special oils) ), as well as supportive, i.e., formations from different roots (man - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as an exchange of sounds (sleep - sleep).
In the analytic method, grammatical meanings are expressed outside the main word, i. in other words (listen - I listen).
In the mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the adverb is the adverb and the ending (at home), the grammatical meaning of the first person is the diamond and the ending (I come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at the same time, for example: a verb has an ending - ut represents both a person and a number and a mood.
A grammatical category is a set of opposite morphological forms that have a common grammatical meaning. For example, the I-write-write-writing forms denote a person and are therefore grouped into the verbal grammatical category of the person; The forms I write - I write - represent time and form a category of time, a table of word forms - tables, a book - books represent the idea of ​​the number of objects, which are combined into a category of numbers, and so on. It can also be said that grammatical categories consist of separate morphological paradigms. In general, grammatical categories have three characteristics.
1) Grammatical categories constitute a type of closed system. In the grammatical category, the number of opposing members is predetermined by the structure of the language and does not change at all (synchronously). In addition, each member of the category can be represented by one or more single functional forms. Thus, the number of names in the grammatical category is made up of two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (table, book, pen). Nouns and adjectives are divided into three genders, verbs into three hundred, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is determined differently, which is in fact related to evaluation, not to category size. from its components. This means that horses are divided into 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects the different ways in which work is distributed. As for the grammatical structure of the language, then the case system is regulated. available types of declaratio
2) The grammatical meaning (content) is divided between the categories: I write the first person, I write - the second, I write - the third; table, book, pen signify unity, tables, books, feathers denote plural, big - male, big - woman, big - medium, large form does not mean gender.
3) The forms that make up the morphological categories should be combined with the general content component (this is reflected in the definition of the grammatical category). This is a necessary condition for distinguishing a grammatical category. Without this generality, grammatical categories cannot be formed. For example, the opposition of past and present tense verbs does not form a morphological category because they are not based on a common meaning. For the same reason, other lexical-grammatical categories separated in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories.
Important and service parts of speech
Speech fragments are basic grammatical classes of words structured taking into account the morphological features of words. These phrases are important not only for morphology but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words related to a part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning called the part of speech (e.g., the meaning of objectivity for all nouns);

2) a set of identical morphological categories (horses are characterized by animate / inanimate, gender, number, and status categories). In addition, the words in a part of speech have derivative affinity and perform the same syntactic function as part of the sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, as well as cuts, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech are used to identify objects, characters, processes, and other events of reality. Such words are usually independent members of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, number, rhyme, verb, adverb.
Inside, the independent parts of speech are contrasted with complete and insignificant words. Full synonyms (noun, adjective, number, verb, plural affixes) serve to name certain objects, events, characters, and non-synonymous words (these are pronouns) and rhymes) without naming the object, event, character, only shows.
Another difference in the scope of independent parts is important: nouns (nouns, adjectives, numbers, as well as rhymes) are contrasted with the verb as tense parts (tense cases), which are described by them. conjugation (mood change, time, individuals) ...
The formal parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name real-life events, but rather the relationships that exist between them. They are not independent members of the sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Sections (ah !, hurray! Etc.) are not even independent service units speech, they form a special grammatical category of words. The cuts express the speaker’s emotions (but do not name them)

Since parts of speech are grammatical concepts, it is self-evident that the principles and principles of distinguishing parts of speech should be, first and foremost, grammatical. First, such bases are syntactic features of the word. The grammatical structure of a sentence includes some words, while others do not. Some of those included in the grammatical structure of a sentence are independent members of a sentence, while others do not, because they can only serve as a service element that establishes relationships between parts of speech, parts of speech, and so on. Second, the morphological features of words are important: their variability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, its system of forms.

Based on the above, all words in Russian are divided into sentences that are included in the grammatical structure and those that are not included in this content. The first represents the absolute majority of words. Among them are important and service words.
Important words are independent parts of speech. These include: noun, adjective, number, verb, adverb, and case category.
Important words are called parts of speech. Among the important words, according to the morphological features of variability, on the one hand, there is a category of nouns and verbs, on the other hand, there is a category of adverbs and adverbs.
The last two categories - suffixes and case categories - are different syntactic functions (suffixes mainly serve the case function, the case category is the predicate of the impersonal sentence: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L. ) as well as status words in contrast to suffixes. Able to manage categories («I'm sad», «interesting you»; rivers! ”- P.).
Service words (they are also called speech particles) are combined with the fact that they (which are part of the grammatical structure of a sentence) only serve to express different types of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, ie. not members of the offer. Morphologically, they are also united by invariance.
These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. In this case, the prepositions serve to express the attitude of the horse to other words, the associations establish a connection between the members and parts of speech. complex sentence ... Particles are involved in the construction of certain verb forms, in the construction of certain types of sentences (e.g. interrogative sentences). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modal words, cuts, and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, probably, probably, apparently, of course, etc.) indicate the speaker’s attitude to the content of the sentence. Words are used to express emotions and voluntary impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia is the expression of sounds and noises. These last three categories of words are the same as service words.
Perhaps this number is a monument to that long period that was rarely used in practice, and in most practical cases grammatically expressed forms meaning «one» and «many» were sufficient.
There are different ways to express the plural:
Repetitions («Japanese patch» - «mountain», «yamayama» - «mountains»).
Terminations, prefixes, suffixes: («mol» - «mol»).
Additional number (see Suppletivism): («person» - «people»).
Vocalization change (called «broken plural»): («Arabic book» - «book», «pole» - «books»). - Source: ⁵