Content Introduction Chapter-i 3 Analytical Tools for Grammatical Meaning

1.2 Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words:
3.According to its grammatical structure, Russian belongs to the inflected type of languages ​​with analytical elements. Therefore, most grammatical meanings are expressed in a synthetic way, that is, with the help of means (grammatical indicators) located in the word itself. These tools include:
1. Endings ... Endings are used to denote:
• meaning of numbers and cases of horses;
• Gender, quantity and condition of quality, cut and rhyme;
• the meaning of the state of the numbers;
• Personal, numerical and gender meaning of verbs.
One ending can represent one grammatical meaning, two or three grammatical meanings.
2. Forming affixes ... Additions are used in education:
• Past tense forms of the verb;
• Section and section shapes;
• Comparative and superior forms of quality and follow-up sentences.
Postfixed:
• Forms of imperative inclination 2 l. verb;
• The infinitive forms of the verb.
Some grammatical meanings can be expressed: word-forming and base-forming affixes: horses use suffixes to form singular (rabbit onok- rabbit-a) and plural (er - erj -a), prefixes perfect fe ' (make - with - do, summer - over-write)
3. Stress as a grammatical tool is usually accompanied by affixes. Stress itself rarely expresses grammatical meanings. They are distinguished by the use of stress, for example:
• Unit forms. h. gender. and so on and so forth. h. they are. horses (st e We - walls s);
Correlative verbs (cut éZat - cut áT).
4. Alternative phonemes, like accents, are usually an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. Often accompanied by affixation.
In the morphology of the Russian language, the cases of expression of grammatical meanings play an important role. in an analytical sense, that is, by means of non-verbal means. This includes tools
5. Service parts of speech (prepositions, particles) Prepositions are widely used to express the meanings of nouns, numbers and rhymes. In addition, they usually appear to end or not to end (materially expressed and zero).
6. All cases of expressing grammatical meanings using the analytical method include syntactic means, ie through the context surrounding the words. For example, control represents the case values ​​of invariant nouns.
7. Some words have separate grammatical meanings in a supportive way, i.e. the use of forms with different roots (Adam is people-and).
8. Intonation ... The main area of ​​application of intonation to express grammatical meanings is syntax.
Word form and word form
The word is used in a coherent text in one of its word forms. For example, on the shore of the desert waves in the sentence he was full of great thoughts (A. Pushkin) the words coast, desert, wave, tour, he, great, to 'la is represented by one of the word forms available for these words.

Word form - a morphological unit that represents one of the possible forms of a particular word (spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, spring - about word forms spring, the morphemes that form this word by changing the cases and numbers are formed by adding the stems to the numbers - -a, -y, -e, etc.). Variable words have multiple word forms (depending on rotation or conjugation properties), while invariant words are single. The word form as a unit of morphological system has a grammatical (morphological) meaning, a form, and at the same time a lexical meaning specific to a particular word: if a word. Spring signifies a certain time of year, then each of the word forms of this word has the same meaning. However, for some words, the derivative lexical meanings do not appear in all word forms of the given word, but only in some of them. For example, all word forms Forest in the literal basic sense of the word they retain this meaning («a large area covered with growing trees»), but this the word has only a few figurative meanings given to some forms of this word: Forest does not have plural forms in the sense of «building material.» numbers (forest brought to the construction site), a Forest is used only in the plural in the sense of a fortification structure. number (scaffolding was installed for workers around the building under construction). The word table means «type of furniture» in the form of all 12 words (ie in all cases singular and plural) and in the sense of «food» (this sanatorium has a good table) used in unit forms only.

Two terms are used to describe the morphological features of words: word form and (grammatical) word form. These terms represent two different concepts, so they should not be confused. The word form, as mentioned above, is the exact realization in the text of the word, reflecting the lexical meaning and grammatical meanings and forms, the grammatical form of the word is only an indicator of the specific concrete grammatical categories of the word. For example, the words window shelf and glass holder have the same structure and the same grammatical meaning and shape (at, m. R., Unit, im.-vin. P.), I.e.. these are the same word forms, but at the same time they are different word forms because they are word forms of different words. The form of a word can be represented by a single word form: say, say, or a combination of two word forms: the form of an important word and a servant word - be an auxiliary verb or a formative particle: I speak, The form of a word represented by a word is called synthetic. Most of the forms of different parts of speech are synthetic. The word form expressed by a combination of significant and servant word forms is called analytic ... Analytic forms include future tense forms of imperfective verbs (I speak, do you speak, speak, speak ...); forms of joint action (We .. do (these) speak, let’s (say) say, let’s (say) talk) and all forms of subjunctive mood (spoke, spoke, spoke, said). Morphological paradigm The word forms of a variable word form a rigidly organized system in their generality - the flexion paradigm of a given word. In morphology, the term «paradigm» has two meanings: 1) a system of word forms that form a lexeme (word paradigm paradigm, sky, read verb conjugation paradigm, etc.); 2) pattern, scheme of rotation (paradigm of the 1st conjugation of horses, paradigm of the 2nd conjugation of verbs, paradigm of change of adjectives on levels of comparison, etc.).
There are three types of paradigms - complete, incomplete, and redundant. The change in completeness is a paradigm similar to each other. A complete paradigm is a paradigm that has a complete set of flexion forms in one or another category specific to a particular part of speech. The complete paradigm reflects the regular and frequency flexion of a particular part of speech, which is the norm of the inflectional system of speech in a particular part of speech. The complete paradigm of nouns consists of 12 word forms (singular and plural cases), and the complete paradigm of perfect verbs consists of 10 word forms (agreement of persons and numbers, gender and numbers in the future tense). past), complete the paradigm of imperfective verbs 16 word forms (conjugation by persons and numbers in the present tense; persons and numbers in the future tense; by gender and numbers in the past tense), and so on. A similar paradigm is a paradigm in which two different words have partial common paradigms in conjunction or conjugation (several identical word forms for two different words). Paradigms seem to merge or intersect. This phenomenon is common in the field of adjectives, diamonds, cuts with the advent of m and cf forms. R .; and the verb system is such a paradigm of unity.
Adjectives of all categories in the future of m forms.And see. gender has regularly intersecting paradigms, which are consistent in all cases except nominative and accusative (if V. = I.). Paradigms of ordinal numbers, cuts, rhymes-adjectives (and words) he, this).
For example, the verbs lie and lie down, as well as their derivatives (lie, lie down, lie down, lie down, etc.) have a corresponding paradigm in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person of the present (or future simple) tense.
But in the past tense, each verb has its own gender and number paradigm.
An incomplete paradigm is an incomplete set of flexion forms of a particular word in a particular category. The incompleteness of the set of forms is determined by comparison with the complete paradigm of the same flexion. For example, the complete paradigm of changes in the cases and numbers of horses consists of 12 members. The word dream has an incomplete declension paradigm - there is no gender in the form. n. pl. h., the word honey has an incomplete connotation paradigm because it does not contain plural forms. h; The words shchets, drowets have only one case form - gender. n. pl. h. In addition, the words have incomplete paradigms of honey, cream, drowets, shchetsrakam - they do not change in numbers.
An excess paradigm is a paradigm that contains more forms than a complete paradigm of flexion in one category or another. For example, the word Adam has an extreme number paradigm, because when plural forms are formed, people, indirectly, have the plural form of the word Adam along with numbers Adam: gender. P. - five people, dates. P. - five people P. - Although the five-person plural case paradigm is not complete, there is no form for them, n. - people. The paradigm of a word number is also redundant: year - years - years - summer (p. Form. Summer is described as obsolete, but the form is gender. N. Is widely used in conjunction with numbers: five years; form type five years). The superfluous conjugation paradigm (person and number categories) with verbs such as drip, move, meow, etc. have meow, meow; you move, you move; drip
In determining the nature of the paradigm, it is necessary to compare the paradigm of a particular word form in a particular category with the paradigm as the inflectional norm of the word of a particular part of speech. The comparison shows that the same paradigm can be complete in one category, incomplete in another, and redundant in a third. For example, the word drip has a complete paradigm of gender (channel, drip, drip) number and excess paradigm on the face (drip and drip, drip and drip, caplet and drip, etc.); the verb conquest has an incomplete paradigm for the face (no 1st person, unit) and complete paradigms for number and gender.
Officially expressed grammatical meanings in opposition form a grammatical category. A grammatical category is a two-way unit of the morphological system of a language, which has a plan of content (has its own semantics) and a plan of expression (has its own external indicators, the expressed forms of this semantics).
From a semantic point of view, a grammatical category is a collection of homogeneous grammatical meanings. Thus, the general meaning of the category of adjectives consists of two special meanings - singular and plural; the general case semantics of horses includes the features of 6 cases. Specific grammatical meanings can be compound or fragmentary. For example, a synonym has several meanings: belonging, participle, subject, etc. Such grammatical meanings can be named. primary ... They are inseparable. With the official point of view, a grammatical category is a set of grammatical forms that serve to express certain grammatical meanings. Specific grammatical meanings expressed through grammatical forms create opposition, which is the essence of the grammatical category. Grammatical forms that combine multiple grammatical meanings come into conflict on several grounds. Grammatical meanings are most clearly expressed in forms that are fundamentally contradictory. Grammatical categories differ from each other not only in the nature of the opposition, but also in the number of opposing members. For example. The grammatical category of the horse number consists of 2 members, forming only one contradiction; the grammatical category of the verb tense consists of 3, forming 3 contradictions. In Russian, the maximum number of members (6) has a work category (15 opposites). It is especially important to consider the unity of semantic and formal planes when analyzing grammatical categories: if there is no plan, then the phenomenon cannot be called a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of specific horses to general horses as a morphological category, as this contradiction cannot find a consistent official expression. The contradiction of verbal agreements is not categorical, but for another reason: The exact formal indications (endings) of conjugations I-II do not serve to express semantic differences between the verbs of different conjugations.
Grammatical categories are morphological (classification and inflection) and syntactic. Depending on whether the members (components) of a morphological category are represented by the same word forms or only by different word forms, morphological categories are divided into two groups: nonverbal and inflective.
Nolughats are categories whose members cannot be expressed by the same word forms. They are expressed in contrast to the grammatical features of the words. On this basis, the entire vocabulary of the language can be divided into grammar classes (hence the name classification). For example, the sex category in horses and the animate ~ inanimate category have a classifying property.
Flexion categories are categories whose members can be represented by forms of the same word. They are represented by the contrast of different word forms of the same word. For example, the face category of a verb is inflected because it is enough to compare different forms of the same verb to find it.
Morphological categories are divided into categories depending on how the connections and relationships are reflected in the categorical meanings. can be syntagmatically defined (in a syntactic compound) and nosyntagmatic. Syntagmatic identification is a word that indicates that the form of one word is directly related to the form of another word (or a word in general) or that itself determines the form of another word. The definition of morphological categories in compounds is understood: red tent (the word form is subordinate to the red word form tent, and at the same time it is predetermined); reading a book (read the word form the book is subject to the word); The knocking of the wheels (the word form is knocking the wheels obey the word).
TO can be syntagmatically defined The following morphological categories include:
1) gender, number and adjective categories, as well as gender and numerical categories of verbs, which represent the ability of an adjective to act as an agreed definition of a noun, represent the ability to coordinate a predicate-verb. by subject-name by gender and number;
2) a gender category, which expresses the ability of horses to have a gender-agreed adjective, as well as the ability to coordinate in the past tense and the predicate verb in the complementary mood;
All of these categories are defined based on syntactic relationships. The sound category belongs to the category of syntagmatically identifiable, but this identification has a specific feature: it includes whole syntactic constructions, not one-way or (coordinated) two-way syntactic connections.
TO includes syntagmatically indeterminate morphological categories, the values ​​of which reflect various semantic abstractions abstracted from features, connections, and relationships of non-linguistic reality, such as quantitative relationships of objects, degree of feature manifestation, limited or infinite motion. the temporal attribute of the boundary, the movement, whether it is real or not. These include the number category of the noun, the category of quality and degree of comparison of the adverb, and the categories of type, tense, and mood of the verb. To define all of these categories is independent of the subordinate combinations of words.
Categories that are both syntagmatically and syntagmatically indeterminate can be both inflective (e.g., case and number of a horse, tense and mood of a verb), and nonverbal (e.g., gender of a horse, a type of verb). ).
Morphological categories belong to the parts of speech and largely determine their specificity. In Russian, nouns and adjectives have the categories of gender, number, and condition, each of which manifests itself differently in the system of nouns and adjectives. In general, the numbers belong to the case category only. Pronouns have gender, number, and case categories, which describe different categories of this part of speech differently. The verb has categories of sound, mood, number, tense, person, gender. Levels of comparison are characteristic for adjectives, suffixes, and nouns in the case category.
Similar information.
Grammatical meanings are expressed by various material means (suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). These tools are grouped into so-called methods based on common characteristics. Grammatical methods for all languages ​​of the world are divided into: 1) affixation 2) exchange 3) stress 4) repetitions 5) word structure 6) suppletivism 7) functional method of words, 8) word order method, 9) intonation py. Methods of expressing grammatical meaning by means of words are called synthetic, and methods of expressing grammatical meaning by means of words are called analytical.³