Contents introduction 2 I. The meaning and purpose of translation

Class Equivalence - indicating that class or "concepts" are equivalent. For example: "Person" is the same as "Individual"

Property Equivalence - indicating that two properties are equivalent. For example: "Person Given Name" is the same as "FirstName"

Instance Equivalence - indicating that two individual instances of objects are equivalent. For example: "Dan Smith" is the same person as "Daniel Smith".

5. 
   Communicative translation: Communicative translation is a translation method that attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the source language so that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. This method was created by Peter Newmark, who was one of the main figures in the founding of translation process. Communicative translation focuses on readers, taking explaining the obscurities into consideration and expecting to make the translation smoother, briefer and more understandable. Such translation should respect the culture background of the readers so some foreign element would be transferred where necessary Communicative translation is freer, and gives priority to the effectiveness of the message to be communicated.
   
6. 
   Idiomatic translation: It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. Idioms refer to a group of words that convey a different meaning from their perceived literal meaning. For example, you are familiar with the phrase, “it is raining cats and dogs”. We know this does not mean that it actually rained cats and dogs. In the grammatical constructions and in the selection of lexical units, idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the target language. An actual idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation. It sounds like it was originally written in the target language. Hence, what a good translator must do is to make the translation idiomatically. This must be the target. Translations, however, are often a combination of a literal transfer of the grammatical units together with idiomatic translation of the meaning of the text. Consistently translating idiomatically is not so much easy. A translator may express some parts of the translation in very natural forms and then in other parts transform a literal form. Translations fall on a range from very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, to idiomatic, and then may even move on to be unduly free which add some extra information.
   
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