Course paper the theme: stress in compound words and word combinations

2.1 THE ROLE OF STRESS IN COMPOUN WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

Word stress in compounds depends on the semantic weight of the elements. When the first element determines, restricts the second one or introduces some contrast it is stressed, while the second element of the compound remains unstressed though the stressed vowel of the second element remains strong.

Compound words usually consist of two words (two components) that may be written separately, with a hyphen, or as one word. Rules and recommendations for the use of the hyphen with compound words are rather complicated and subject to change, so it is best to consult a good up-to-date dictionary.
­Words composed of separable root morphemes are called com p o u n d s. The spelling of compound words differs. They may be spelled as one word, with a hyphen or as two separate words. Among compound words we find compound nouns, adjectives, verbs.
Word stress in compounds depends on the semantic weight of the elements. When the first element determines. restricts the second one or introduces some contrast it is stressed while the second element of the compound remains unstressed though the stressed vowel of the second element retains its qualitative and quantitative prominence. This is the case with the majority of compound nouns. They are usually single-stressed, eg: 'reading-room. 'writing-table, apple-tree. 'suitcase. 'raincoat. 'music-hall, 'blackboard. fountain-pen.
This type of word stress in compound nouns differentiates compounds from word combinations in which every word has a stress, cf:

'blackbird – дрозд 'black 'bird – черная птица

'blackboard – классная доска 'black 'board – черная доска

'qold 'fish – рыба золотого цвета 'goldfish –золотая рыбка

'strong 'box – крепкий ящик 'strong-box - сейф

­Double-stressed compound nouns are comparatively rare. In such compounds both elements are equally important, eg 'gas- 'stove, 'gas-'ring, 'absent-'mindedness, 'ice-'cream.

Compound adjectives have generally two stresses for both elements are equally significant in them, eg: 'c1ean-'shaven, 'well-'bred, 'bare-'/ooted, 'broad-'shouldered: 'first-'class. Compound adjectives with only one stress on the first element occur when the second element is semantically weak, eg 'spring-like, 'childlike, 'oval-shaped. Compound verbs have stresses on both elements as they are of equal semantic significance, eg 'give 'in - 'give 'out. 'turn 'on - 'turn 'out.
Examples of compound words:
toothpaste; flashlight; night club
go out; light-green; twenty-five
Both components (both words) in compound words are stressed. In this material, capital letters show the syllable / word with primary stress. Secondary stress is on the other component of the compound word. Secondary stress is not shown here. (You can listen to compound words in Listening for Stress in Compound Words (AmE) in the section Phonetics.)
Note: English terms
The terms "open compound; closed compound; hyphenated compound" are often used in English linguistic materials.
Compound words written as two separate words are called "open compounds". For example: credit card; high school; light bulb; post office.
Compound words written as one word are called "closed compounds" (or "solid compounds"). For example: airplane, highland, lighthouse, railroad.
Compound words with a hyphen are called "hyphenated compounds". For example: bad-tempered; good-looking; high-minded; light-hearted.
Compound nouns
Compound nouns are very common in English. Many dictionaries give compound nouns as separate entries, but their stress is not always indicated. Use the links to online dictionaries on the page Vocabulary to check the transcription of compound nouns and to listen to their pronunciation.
In compound nouns, both components (both words) are stressed. Primary stress falls on the first component (the first word), even if the two words are written separately. Usually, the second component is a noun. The first component may be a noun, a gerund, an adjective, or a verb.
FOOTball; ARMchair; MAILbox
PHOtograph; TELegram; TELescope
WRITing desk; SWIMming pool
HIGH school; HIGHway; HOT dog
CRYbaby; PUSHcart; BREAKthrough
Primary stress on the first component
Primary stress on the first component reflects the tight connection between the two parts of a compound noun. This stress is the main distinguishing mark between a compound noun (stress on the first component) and a regular / free Attribute + Noun combination in which primary stress is on the second word (on the noun).
Compare these pairs in which the first word combination is a compound noun (tight connection between the two components; primary stress on the first component; secondary stress on the second component), and the second is a free combination of an adjective or participle with a noun (loose connection between the two words; primary stress on the second word; secondary stress on the first word).
GREENhouse – green HOUSE
BLACKboard – black BOARD
DARKroom – dark ROOM
EVEning dress – evening SKY
WALKing stick – walking PEOPLE
READing test – reading BOY
SINGing lesson – singing GIRL
MOBile phone – mobile PERson
STONE Age – stone BUILDing
HOT dog – hot TEA
PAPer knife – paper BAG
ENGlish teacher – English TEACHer
SUMmertime – summer CLOTHES
SUMmer camp – summer SPORTS
NIGHT school, EVEning school – night HOURS, evening HOURS
There are some exceptions from the standard pattern of compound noun stress, for example, manKIND. In some cases, there are two variants of stress in compound nouns, for example, well-BEing; WELL-being.
Note: Most compound nouns are usually written as one word (without a hyphen) or as two separate words. But some compound nouns are hyphenated. For example: cease-fire; court-martial; cross-purposes; father-in-law; mother-in-law; great-grandfather; great-grandson; self-control; self-service; well-wisher.
Compound nouns written as two words
Language learners usually have no problem with stress in compound nouns written as single words (POSTcard; PANcake) but may have difficulty identifying compound nouns written as two separate words (CREDit card; WEDding cake).
Examples of compound nouns that are usually written as two separate words are given below. Primary stress is on the first word; secondary stress is on the second word.
FOOTball player; CAR dealer
FIRE fighter; SMOKE detector
MATH student; GRAMMar book
CONference hall; MEDical school
MINeral water; FRUIT juice
PORK chop; CARVing knife
FRYing pan; dePARTment store
LIVing room; LIGHT bulb
TRAIN station; BUS stop
PARKing lot; DRIVing test
eCONomy class; dePARture time
CREDit card; SAVings account
CELL phone; PHONE call
POST office; TELephone book
BLOOD type; HEALTH check
DRINKing problem; HEART disease
DEATH sentence; LIFE insurance
HORror movie; GHOST story
AIR pressure; WEATHer report
Note: The rules of adding the plural ending s/es and the apostrophe to compound nouns are described in Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs and Adding the Apostrophe to Nouns in the section Writing.
Phrasal verbs with postpositions
Phrasal verbs with postpositions (with adverbial particles) are compound verbs in which both components are stressed, usually with stronger stress on the postposition.
'fall aPART; 'turn aWAY
'come BACK; 'come IN
'break DOWN; 'break IN
'break THROUGH; 'go ON
'take OFF; 'look OUT;
'move OVer; 'give UP
'make UP; 'bring UP
(See examples with these phrasal verbs in the subsection Phrasal Verbs in the section Idioms.)
If a compound noun is formed from a phrasal verb, primary stress in it falls on the first component, and the noun is usually written as a single word or with a hyphen.
GETaway; COMEback
BREAKdown; BREAKthrough
LOOKout; OUTlook
DOWNfall; UPbringing
MAKE-up; TAKE(-)off
Compound adjectives
Both parts of compound adjectives are stressed. Stronger stress usually falls on the second component of two-word compound adjectives.
dark-GREEN; light-BROWN
grayish-BLUE; bright-RED
red-HOT; white-HOT
absent-MINDed; low-SPIRited
old-FASHioned; cold-BLOODed
well-KNOWN; well-DRESSed
broken-HEARTed; HEARTbroken
easyGOing, easy-GOing
good-LOOKing; longSTANDing
snow-WHITE; sky-BLUE
stone-BLIND; ice-COLD
duty-FREE; skin-DEEP
man-MADE; handMADE
half-DEAD; half-FULL
self-CONscious; self-CONfident
Note: Stress on the noun
If one of the components in a two-word adjective is a noun, stronger stress may fall on the noun, irrespective of whether it is the first or second component.
COLor-blind; WATerproof
high-CLASS; high-SPEED
low-COST; low-KEY
LAW-abiding; EARsplitting
off-COLor
off-BALance
AIRsick; SEAsick
Note: Hyphen with compound adjectives
A compound adjective before the noun that it modifies is written with a hyphen: a dark-blue dress; a reddish-brown rug; a well-known writer; a well-read student.
Many compound adjectives in the position after the linking verb are written as two separate words, without a hyphen. Examples: Her dress is dark blue. The rug is reddish brown. This writer is well known.
Many other compound adjectives keep the hyphen in such cases: He is absent-minded and old-fashioned. She is good-looking and good-natured. She is well-read in English poetry.
Combinations of adverbs ending in "ly" with adjectives or participles are not hyphenated: a widely known fact; entirely white hair; a highly paid lawyer.
If a compound noun written as two separate words is used as an attribute before another noun, such an attribute is usually hyphenated: a high-school teacher; the living-room window; a parking-lot attendant.
Compound numerals
In compound numerals consisting of several words, each component / each word is stressed (except "and"); the last component receives the strongest stress.
Compound numerals from twenty-one to ninety-nine are hyphenated. Fractions in the function of nouns may be with or without a hyphen.
thirTEEN; sevenTEEN
fifTEENTH; eighTEENTH
twenty-THREE; forty-SIX
fifty-SEVen; ninety-EIGHT
sixty-SECond; seventy-FIFTH
five HUNdred and thirty-TWO
three hundred THOUsand
one-HALF, one HALF
two-THIRDS, two THIRDS
one twenty-FIFTH
twenty-three HUNdredths

Even if it is clear that a compound is involved, there is no indication of how it should be stressed. It is not surprising that wrong stressing of compounds is one of the commonest errors, even among those who otherwise approach a native-speaker standard of pronunciation. . The normal native-speaker pronunciation is given in parentheses.

‘fountain ‘pen (‘fountain pen) ‘hose’pipe (‘hosepipe)
‘fault ‘finding (‘faultfinding) ‘grand’mother (‘grandmother)
‘make-‘believe (‘make-believe) ‘English ‘teacher (‘English teacher)
As far as this last example is concerned, both stress patterns are possible, but there is a difference in meaning. ‘English ‘teacher means a teacher who is English, while ‘English teacher means a teacher of English, who may or may not be English. To go back to previous examples, I find that
my students, when asked to mark stress, almost invariably put ‘bus con’ductor (for ‘bus conductor), ‘engine ‘driver (for ‘engine driver), and
‘dining ‘room (for ‘dining room).
One way of explaining the apparent variability in the way we pronounce and write compound words is to look at them as part of a process of word formation in English. Historically, what seems to happen is that when a compound is first used it is felt still to consist of two separate words. Later, as it becomes more firmly incorporated in the language, it comes to be regarded as one word. Several intermediate stages may be passed through, where the status of the compound is ambiguous. Furthermore,
this process may take place at different speeds as far as speech and writing are concerned. This would explain some of the examples above, which seem to behave differently in speech and writing.
We can say, then, that many compound words seem to occupy an uneasy intermediate status between single words and phrases or groups of words.
From the point of view of stress, there seems to be an interaction between the principles of lexical stress, that is stress as a lexical property of the single word, and the principles of accent, which apply to phrases and groups of words. To put it a little differently, we could say that compound word stress provides us with a case of lexical stress, that is, stress as a property of a word, whose place in the word is decided on the basis of the
principles of accent placement. If it is true, as we have suggested, that compound words occupy an intermediate position between single words and phrases, then it is not surprising that they should be affected by principles that apply to phrases.
‘Double’ stress and ‘single’ stress
This recognition that accent is involved may help us in deciding how to stress compounds. But before exploring this possibility, let us first look at another principle which has been proposed to explain stress placement in compounds. Consider the following examples:
‘steel con’tainer (cf. ‘steel container)
‘plastic ‘bag (cf. ‘plastic factory)
‘metal ‘box (cf. ‘metal company)
‘fish ‘pie (cf. ‘fish shop)
In these examples, there seems to be a difference in the relationship between the two elements making up the compound, and this results in a different stress pattern, so that, for instance when steel container means ‘container made of steel’, it has double stress (‘steel con’tainer); but when it means ‘container for keeping steel’ it has single stress (‘steelcontainer).
We also have examples like the following:
‘woman ‘doctor (cf. ‘woman hater)
‘player ‘manager (cf. ‘player power)
‘child ‘actor (cf. ‘child minder)
Here also there seems to be a different relationship between the two elements of the compound, so that we get double stress when the two elements refer to different aspects of the same person, and single stress in other cases (a woman doctor is both a woman and a doctor, but a woman hater is presumably not normally a woman). Further similar examples are:
‘family ‘size (cf. ‘family size)
‘city ‘wall (cf. ‘city people)
where in the double-stressed examples there seems to be an ‘of or ‘genitive’ relationship, as can be seen in the following contrasting sentences:
Poverty seems to be related to family size (‘family ‘size).
When buying washing powder I always buy the family size (‘family
size).
In the first case, we are talking about the size of a family, and in the second case, about the size for a family.