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Leadership Across Cultures 131
 linear- active managers: managers who demonstrate and value high technical 
competence, emphasis on factual detail, logic before emotion, focus on 
immediate achievement and results;
 multi- active managers: managers who are more outgoing, flexible and able 
to deal with frequent change (essentially polychronic), who use their 
personality to inspire people;
reactive managers: managers who possess good interpersonal skills and are 
exponents of the ‘listening culture’, who are respected for the positive 
and harmonious atmosphere they bring to multinational teams.
In the examination of the different styles of leadership, we should also 
consider what is described as charismatic or inspirational leadership. This is 
also equated with transformational leadership, which is concerned with moti-
vation, inspiring commitment and having a clear vision of the future for an 
organization, which will produce a dramatic and beneficial change in the 
positioning of the organization in its sector in the marketplace. However, it 
has been argued that charisma alone is no guarantee of success.
Below are some examples of different cultural leadership styles:
Germans seek strong and decisive leadership which engenders confi-
dence in what they are talking about. Such leaders inspire respect, and 
their orders and instructions are obeyed because their functional compe-
tence is acknowledged. This is assisted by a clear chain of command, and 
instructions and information are passed down from the top. Considerable 
value is placed on gaining consensus.
The French style tends to favour a more directive leader with a high degree 
of technical competence. The leaders are expected to give clear instructions 
to their subordinates and experience and qualifications are highly valued.
The Italians tend to display the traditional leadership model from a family 
business. Authority is delegated personally to trusted individuals. Leaders 
are expected to be technically competent and to demonstrate creativity. 
Throughout Latin Europe, the management pattern is very similar, with 
employees in general willing to trust the decisions of their leaders.
The Dutch tend to have less regard for hierarchy. Their leaders have an open 
relationship with employees and are seen as being the ‘first among equals’.
In Spain, the individual leader is seen more as a benevolent autocrat 
who is expected to be decisive and have authority derived from personal 
relationships with subordinates.
In the UK, managers place considerable emphasis on establishing good 
relationships with their subordinates, with a flexible approach, yet 
ultimately reserving the right to take charge.
The Swedish concept of leadership is essentially democratic, with senior 
staff being accessible to their subordinates and available for discussions.
In Russia, there is generally a top- down hierarchy and individualism is 
not encouraged to the extent that it is in the West.
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132 Cross-Cultural Communication
Japanese leadership concentrates on getting the group to work together 
and there is a high degree of collective responsibility.
American leaders are keen to achieve results for themselves, the company 
and the shareholders. They are given the authority and responsibility 
to act accordingly. Motivation is linked to a sense of achievement and 
the need to respond to challenges. Leadership is based on the belief in 
individual accountability, with the leader acting more as a ‘coach’ in the 
sporting sense.
When considering Hofstede’s dimensions of culture (see Chapter 2), it is 
clear that one dimension in particular, namely that of power distance, is 
relevant to leadership styles in different cultures. One of the most important 
aspects is the balance of power in organizations between individuals and the 
group. This balance will vary between cultures with regard to whether:
authority is vested in the leader or the group;
the emphasis is on the structure and status of the hierarchy;
women have equal opportunities in society to become leaders or whether 
there is a ‘glass ceiling’ to impede their career progression.
When we consider all four of Hofstede’s main dimensions, leadership styles 
will vary in relation to what are considered by employees to be motivating 
factors:
High uncertainty avoidance: need for job security, less risk taking. Employees 
require strong direction and a clear framework of rules and regulations.
Low uncertainty avoidance: prefer more risky opportunities or variety and 
for fast- track advancement and the opportunity to contribute with sug-
gestions.
High power distance: employees will expect their leaders to take charge and 
make decisions.
Low power distance: people are more motivated by employee participation, 
teamwork and relations with their peers.
High individualism: the focus is on need to motivate individuals by 
providing opportunities for personal advancement and autonomy.
Low individualism (collectivism): motivation is more likely to succeed 
through appealing to group goals and preserving group harmony.
High masculinity: employees tend to be more comfortable with the 
traditional divisions of work.
More feminine cultures: looser boundaries, motivating people through more 
flexible roles, equal opportunities and greater emphasis on compromise 
than conflict.
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Leadership Across Cultures 133
There is growing evidence in the EU of the increase in what has been called 
‘the multicultural executive’ (Lewis, 2011) or ‘the New Euro-executive’ (Hurn, 
1999), referred to in Chapter 6. The hallmark of this breed of European 
managers is extensive senior experience in the European market, backed by 
well- developed cross- cultural and linguistic fluency, as well as the ability to 
manage multicultural teams. These special leadership qualities are essential to 
meet the new challenges and opportunities presented in a fiercely competitive 
European market and the new fast- emerging markets in the BRIC nations.