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and appraisal
In Western cultures, it is generally accepted that some form of performance 
appraisal is carried out both domestically and in an international context. 
In the latter case, it is considered even more important to assess whether 
managers in senior positions fulfil their potential, not only regarding their 
technical and specific professional functions but also ‘in their cross- cultural 
skills, sensitivity to foreign norms and values, understanding differences in 
labour practices or customer relations and ease of adaptation to unfamiliar 
surroundings’ (McKenna and Beech, 2008).
However, in many cultures, in particular Asian cultures such as Japan, 
China or South Korea, there are very real problems in implementing any 
form of direct performance appraisal. This is particularly the case when sav-
ing ‘face’ is a problem if managers provide feedback to their staff which draws 
attention to negative aspects of their performance. In addition, the focus on 
individual responsibility is seen as inappropriate in collectivist cultures.
The following are the key areas of cultural concern when considering the 
implementation of a performance appraisal system:
the extent of the differences between national and corporate culture;
the problems of giving feedback, in particular saving ‘face’;
whether the focus on individual responsibility is seen as inappropriate in 
a collectivist culture;
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Leadership Across Cultures 139
whether attainment goals can be measured and time- managed;
power- distance differences;
some cultures see organizations in terms of social relationships, with the 
focus on managing people, not tasks.
Summary
There are a range of challenges facing twenty- first- century leaders.
There is no one best form of leadership style as there are many variables. 
It is evident from the substantial research available that culture has an 
important effect on leadership styles.
In the increasingly globalized world, those selected as the potential 
leaders in business need to have special competencies and skills to be 
effective across cultural borders.
Different styles of leadership are appropriate in different cultures, and 
misunderstandings and even conflict can arise when these differences are 
not recognized and accommodated.
Research has been undertaken to determine the important criteria in their 
recruitment and selection, and to collect data to identify the practices 
and values associated with different cultural leadership styles.
Global leadership training has been widely developed to increase the 
pool of talent available for recruitment and selection of the global busi-
ness leaders of the future.
Research into leadership by the GLOBE and INCA Projects has identifed 
some desirable cultural qualities in potential leaders.
There are strong social and cultural factors which still inhibit the progress 
of women in attaining senior leadership positions, but considerable 
recent progress has been made in both career development and the wider 
and now more accepted realization of the benefits and qualities that 
women can bring to senior appointments.