Culture and the Individual s ociety, Culture
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1681712355 Chapter 4
Part II Culture and the Individual S ociety, Culture, and Cultural Change chapter 4 After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Explain why culture is necessary to hold society together List some important elements of culture Summarize briefly three popular theories of cultural change List five factors that cause culture to change List three factors stabilizing culture Discuss the cultural lag theory and its limitations Explain the doctrine of cultural relativism Human beings are social beings. We cannot understand their nature independently of their social environment. That is why we call our discipline social science. To understand human beings ’ role as social beings, we must understand culture. To understand culture and its key role in social science, it is helpful to consider an analogy to physics. When the authors studied physics in high school, we were taught that there are electrons, protons, and neutrons. Together, these made up atoms, atoms made up elements, and elements made up matter. Since that time, learning physics has become much more difficult. Physicists have discovered even smaller particles, which they tell us are the building blocks of all matter. These building blocks include quarks, leptons, and ghostly particles called gluons, whose existence is assumed by physicists because something has to hold matter together. Quarks and leptons make up matter; gluons hold matter together. Why are quarks, leptons, and gluons relevant to social science? Because just as physi- cists need to assume the existence of gluons to hold matter together, social scientists must assume a force that holds society together. Without gluons, quarks and leptons would fall apart and the world as we know it would not exist. Society has a similar force holding it together. Why don ’t you just haul off and clobber your neighbor when he or she does something wrong? Why don ’t countries always enter into war to get what they want? What sensibility makes it possible for society to continue to exist and to coordinate the indi- vidual wills of some 7.4 billion individuals? The answer is culture, and the social science equivalent to the gluon is culture, embodied in social institutions, mores, conventions, and laws. 66 Culture is the sum of all the forms of art, of love, and of thought, which, in the course of centuries, have enabled man to be less enslaved. —Andre Malraux C ulture and Multiculturalism Culture is the total pattern of human behavior and its products, embodied in thought, speech, action, and artifacts. It is the way of thinking and doing that is passed on from adults to children in their upbringing and can be thought of as the shared language, norms, and values of a society. Culture is dependent on the capacity for learning through the use of tools, language, and systems of abstract thought. It includes not only patterns of behavior as such but also the attitudes and beliefs that motivate behavior. Culture creates human beings and human societies. Reciprocally, by slow accumulation over many generations, culture is the product of human societies and of the individuals who compose them. Cultures as we know them have evolved through a long process of change. Cultural evol- ution is the name given to this gradual, accumulative process. Any modern culture is largely the product of the originality and initiative of great numbers of individuals in times past, though in most cases the contribution of any one person has been so small that it cannot even be identified. Because culture is learned by association with other human beings, the character and personality of all human beings are in large part reflections of the society in which they live. Individuals acquire their knowledge, skills, customs, ideals, religion, and morals from their social environment. This is made possible through socialization. Socialization is the process that shapes the personality of individuals so that they can adjust to and become members of society. In the United States, most of us feel, think, and act like U.S. citizens because we have spent all our lives in a mainstream U.S. social environment. If, from earliest childhood, we had associated only with a group of Inuits who never had any contact with mainstream U.S. culture, we probably would neither understand nor feel comfortable with that culture. This does not mean that all people in a culture are alike in their personalities. Significant differences exist in our family backgrounds and in many other aspects of our personal social environment. To develop human nature, we must be human beings and inherit human potentialities; no two people will ever react to the same environment in exactly the same way. Biologically inherited differences affect the intelligence and temperament of every person and therefore affect thinking and behavior. In any given individual, social inheritance and bio- logical inheritance are so closely bound together that we can never be sure of the relative influence of each. However, for nearly all of us the general pattern of life is largely determined by our social environment. Almost everything we believe or know or do we learn from observing other people, from listening to other people, or from reading and thinking about what other people have written. Multiculturalism The United States does not have a single culture, but instead has a blend of overlapping cultures. For example, urban black culture is different from Hispanic culture, which is different from Jewish culture, which is different from rural Midwestern culture, and so on. The blending of these various cultures is not always smooth, and at times is disruptive. Hip-hop, classical, and country music do not a symphony make. Nonetheless, the similarities of the various U.S. subcultures hold together, and allow us to speak of a single U.S. culture, which actually is a composite of various subcultures. Political debates about culture often focus on whether the government should support monoculturalism or multiculturalism. Technically, monoculturalism emphasizes the shared aspects of subcultures, whereas multiculturalism emphasizes the differences among sub- cultures. However, the term multiculturalism has developed a somewhat different meaning. Specifically, the term was used in the 1980s as a way to emphasize that most university curricula reflected a Eurocentric bias at the expense of other U.S. subcultures. Thus, to support multiculturalism was to be against the Eurocentric bias in university curriculums. As often Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 67 happens when terms become part of a political debate, monoculturalism and multi- culturalism were seen as opposites. We don ’t see it that way. We see both as supportable. Specifically, if the U.S. monoculture were understood as being committed to pluralism —the value that cultural diversity is good —there would be no contradiction between the two. The debate is simply about getting the right mix. The advantage of monoculturalism is that shared culture tends to hold society together; the advantage of multiculturalism is that it incorporates diversity and lets subgroups revere their own history and view that history as a strong building block of the larger culture. The Shared Beliefs in Culture Culture is an enormously vague concept that is difficult to grasp. Perhaps the easiest way to understand culture is to answer a few questions: 1. Should children, age 11 to 15, sleep in the same beds as their parents? 2. Should women be allowed to drive? 3. Should females be circumcised? 4. Should people wear swimming suits on public beaches? Most of you from the United States, we suspect, answered the questions (1) no, (2) yes, (3) no, and (4) yes. Why do we suspect that? Because you come from a shared culture. But if you were from another country, or a part of the United States that is not affected by main- stream U.S. culture, your answers would likely be different. For example, according to Richard Shweder in his book, Why Do Men Barbecue? Recipes for Cultural Diversity, in Mali and Somalia many women are repulsed by the idea of not circumcising women. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia some women (although it is a decreasing number) see it as simply inappropriate for a woman to drive. Many more examples could be provided, but these should be sufficient to give you a sense of how culture is the shared beliefs of a society. C ulture and the Nature of Society Even though the personality of each individual is in large measure molded by society, it is clear that society can have no existence apart from the people who constitute it. Society is a group of T he European Migrant Crisis Conflicting cultures often lead to crises. In 2015 and 2016 the European Union faced a migrant crisis as millions of people fled to Europe both to seek better jobs and lives and to escape war-torn countries such as Syria. A large majority of these migrants were Muslim, and their culture reflected that heritage. A large majority of European countries, where they were immigrating to, were Christian and their culture reflected that heritage. That difference created a culture clash. While a small number of immigrants can be assimilated into a pluralistic culture, which most European saw themselves as having, a large number of immigrants in a short period of time makes assimilation difficult and possibly impossible. Instead of adjusting slowly, and solving problems through discussion and good will on both sides, tension leads to anger, riots, and a hardening of positions. Pluralism is undermined as each side tries to protect its cultural heritage. Europe ’s migrant crisis was precipitated by too many migrants in too short a period of time. In post-World War II Europe, because of its experience with displaced people in World War II, Europe developed a legal structure that welcomed all people displaced by war and political turmoil. This legal structure led to the large influx of migrants, as more and more individuals in war-torn and economically depressed countries headed to Europe to find better lives. Europe was overwhelmed. Those laws are now in the process of changing, but, in the short term, the prospect of change brought even more migrants to Europe, as they attempted to get to Europe before the laws changed. 68 Culture and the Individual individuals living as members of a community. The characteristics of every society are gradually shaped and changed over succeeding generations by innovations introduced by the people who belong to it. The influence of any one individual may be small, but the contri- butions of many individuals over long periods of time can be great. It is important to pay close attention to our definition of society. Though the basis of any society is a group of individuals, equally important to its establishment is the continued existence of the group over a period of time. A crowd brought together for a football game is an aggregate, but it is not a society. Its members are physically close together, and for the moment are united by a common interest. However, any sense of unity they may have is superficial and temporary. When the game is over, they disperse. They are not together long enough to organize into a society. But if the same people were marooned for a year on an uninhabited island, they would be forced to organize themselves into a society. 1 They would develop common ideas, interests, and techniques for living and working together. It is the sense of living together as a community that makes up a society. Culture and Its Role in Human Societies There is a problem in precisely defining culture because it has a variety of aspects. But our earlier definition of it is probably the best. Culture is the way of life that the people of a society follow. It includes all knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities acquired by a human being as a member of society. In short, culture is the total pattern of human behavior and its products embodied in thought, speech, action, and artifacts. Culture is also dependent on the capacity for learning through the use of tools, language, and systems of abstract thought. As you can see, the culture of a society includes everything of human origin in the lives of its members —that is, everything they learn through their direct or indirect contacts with other people. It includes the customary ways of behaving in everyday life, religious beliefs, moral standards, the way family life is organized, the methods used to provide food and shelter, language, government, and forms of artistic expression. The Elements of Culture Culture develops only through the association of human beings and thus presupposes society; at the same time, culture is what makes a human society possible. Only when people develop in some degree a common culture can they function as an orga- nized group, for only then do they know what to expect of one another and how to behave to meet the requirements of the group. A society can exist because human beings have the capacity for creating culture and, what is equally important, for sharing it with their contemporaries and transmitting it to succeeding generations. Culture creates societies and societies depend on culture. In short, culture embodies social norms (its conventions, mores, and laws) and institutions together with a society ’s technology, its material products, and its values. Figure 4.1 presents the elements of culture upon which society rests. Let us consider briefly some of the elements of culture. Social Norms (conventions, mores, laws) Institutions Technology Material Products Values Society Figure 4.1 The elements of culture. 1 The television program Survivor assembles a small group of people on an uninhabited island. The basic purpose is to allow viewers to watch the difficulties this group has in making decisions. Were there truly no hope of rescue, and no need to “eliminate” individuals periodically, the group would probably organize and cooperate in a more socially beneficial manner than they do on the show. Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 69 Social Norms: Conventions, Mores, and Laws. Con- ventions are the simple, everyday customs of a group that represent the usual ways of behaving. Conventions change slowly, and many of them are very persistent. In our society, it is customary or conventional to sleep on a bed; to eat at a table; to handle our food with knives, forks, and spoons; and to greet an acquaintance on the street. All these are conventions. Conventions are established customs to which we attach little moral significance. We may think that people whose conventions are different from ours are themselves different, but we try to under- stand those differences, not ostracize people because of their differences. For example, we will probably won- der about a woman who shaves her head, but our social practice will be to try to act as if we notice nothing unusual. Mores (pronounced mor-rays) are conventions that would have serious consequences if they were violated. They include those customs that must generally be observed by all members of a society for the culture to survive. People who disregard mores are usually seen as more than slightly odd or eccentric —their character definitions are beyond weird. Although a violation of a society ’s mores would not necessarily land a person in jail, it would incur social punishment in the form of peer disapproval. For example, a claims adjuster who showed up at the insurance office and completely disrobed would have violated one of society ’s mores and, even if not arrested for indecent exposure, would nevertheless face informal punishment. On the other hand, a person who wears informal clothing to a wedding reception is merely violating a convention. In contrast to mores and conventions, which are merely customs taken as understood in governing the conduct of the group, laws are more exact, and are generally recorded, codified, and enforced as a means of securing public obedience. Laws are the principles and regulations established in a community by some authority and applicable to its people, whether in the form of legislation or of policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. Violations of laws may carry severe punishments and/or ramifications for the offender. Being caught speeding results in a small fine, whereas premeditated murder may be punishable, at least in some states, by death. What is against the law and the punishment for violation of laws vary in different societies. For example, in some Islamic societies it may be against the law for a woman to appear in public with her face uncovered, and stealing may be punished by the loss of one ’s hand. In the United States, there are no laws about covering one’s face, and stealing results in a jail sentence, at most. Social Institutions. A social institution is an established complex pattern of behavior in which a number of persons participate in order to further important group interests. Insti- tutions are usually organized around some central interest or need. Government, for example, provides the necessary order and coordination among individuals. The school provides for formal education of the young, while the family, one of the most basic of all social institutions, helps meet many of the needs of daily life, such as those for shelter, food, close companionship, and affection. The church, temple, mosque, and synagogue are the institutions that enable people to express their religious beliefs by joining others in worshipping a deity or deities in established rituals. Social institutions not only provide order and coordination, but they also provide for social change. For example, religious groups played a significant role in the civil rights movement in the United States, a movement that forced U.S. society to treat African Americans more equitably and to remove some of its blatantly discriminatory laws. Material Products. Strictly speaking, culture is never material. It is in the minds and personalities of people. It is what they have learned from their social environment —attitudes, Erik “The Lizardman” Sprague. © Presselect/Alamy Stock Photo 70 Culture and the Individual beliefs, knowledge, and ways of behaving. However, in every culture, knowledge of how to produce and use a variety of material products, including food, clothing, houses, tools, machines, and works of art, is important. Cultural objects (artifacts) are pro- ducts of human skill and effort that are essential to the functioning of a society. Cultural objects are more than mere expressions of the culture that produces them; they become essential to its functioning because without them people could not carry on the necessary activities of daily life. This is strikingly true in a modern industrial society. Such a society would be paralyzed if it could not use computers, airplanes, cars and trucks, telephones, power plants, factories and their machines, supermarkets, and fast-food outlets, to name a few. Language. Language is a body of words and the system for their use common to a people of the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural tradition. Language is intrinsic in the societies and cultures of humans. Benjamin Lee Whorf argued that each particular language embodies and propagates a worldview. Groups of people speaking the same language, therefore, communicate in the same cultural tone. Cultural assumptions and observations are locked into a society ’s language. For instance, communication between multi- lingual people transmits cultural differences between societies. Language plays a central role in the development and transmission of culture. It allows communication, which is essential for the coordination of activities. It allows cultures to save and transmit a knowledge of their history. Writing allows many further uses of language, widening its ability to store and accumulate knowledge. Writing allows cultures to be pre- served and passed on in expanded ways. But language also creates limitations. The structure of the language influences the way individuals look at issues and can therefore incorporate many hidden biases. The structure of social institutions change over time. Cartoon Stock F WIW :-) Text messaging by email, phone, and instant messenger programs is becoming more and more common —so much so that a new language is developing, both with abbreviations and acronyms, and with emoticons — symbols that add emotion. Below is a sampling of some of these abbreviations and emoticons. Younger students will likely know them all, and more. Older students and professors can find many more by searching the Internet. (The meanings often change slightly over time, as do the specific emoticons. For example, my student proofreader told me that :-P meant tounge sticking out, not the wry smile I thought it meant.) t(-__-t) 143 I love you 2G2BT Too good to be true A3 Anytime, anywhere, anyplace YSYD Yeah sure you do SUITM See you in the morning TTYL Talk to you later FWIW For what it ’s worth LOL Laughing out loud :-) smiley face/happy ;-) wink :-( frown/sad :-@ scream :- j indifference :-/ perplexed ;-} leer :-e disappointment :-> devilish grin :-D shock or surprise :-P wry smile :-! foot in mouth :-& tongue tied :- male >- female Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 71 Social Values. Social values are the motivating power that makes institutions function effectively. They are the things that a given society considers desirable because they are believed to contribute to the good life and the general welfare. In our cultural environment, honesty, courage, justice, and respect for law and for the rights of others are highly regarded social values. So also, on a somewhat different level, are financial success, health, and education. Individuals ’ desires tend to reflect the values stressed in the societies to which they belong. Society in the United States is often said to be materialistic. This may not be a wholly correct characterization; yet it contains an element of truth. In our modern United States, we have great respect for success in business, entertainment, and sports, and we place great emphasis on the importance of raising standards of living and abolishing poverty. Because we put such a high value on material welfare, many of our people have come to regard the earning of more and more money as their major life objective. Others, of course, look on money merely as a means to achieve more important objectives. These more important objectives may involve such “higher” social values as the education of one’s children; charity; the appreciation and encouragement of art, science, and religion; and the rendering of public service. Social values make institutions function effectively. The church, temple, mosque, or synagogue, for instance, will be a dynamic force in society only as long as a large portion of their members firmly believe in a supreme being or spiritual guide and have faith that their religious organization is an essential instrument for the growth of the soul and the creation of a good society. Where religion has a strong hold on a society, it is usually a conservative force tending to preserve established moral values. Social values are relative rather than absolute. They often vary widely from one culture to another, and each individual acquires from his or her own culture ideas of what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, right or wrong. In some societies, sexual relations before marriage are regarded as a cardinal sin; in others, they are permitted or even expected. In some societies, women must be very plump to be regarded as beautiful; in others, they must be rather slim. In most if not in all modern societies, the killing of infants is regarded with horror, but a few tribal societies see it as commendable under certain circumstances —for instance, if the infants have physical disabilities. C ultural Integration Cultures or societies contain certain aspects that are similar among all cultures. These aspects or traits are called universals. A cultural universal is an aspect of culture that is found in all cultures. Religion, for example, is a cultural universal, as is the existence of some form of government, family life, and national ideals. Cultural alternatives are those cultural characteristics not necessarily shared by other cultures. For example, some cultures might place the elderly in a subordinate role, whereas others might place them in an exalted role. Therefore, exalting old age is a cultural alternative; not all societies do it. Traits differ not only among cultures; they also differ within cultures. Cultural inte- gration is the degree to which a culture is internally consistent and homogeneous. In large, complex modern cultures such as the United States, there tends to be more diversity. In small, preliterate cultures such as the Amazon Indian culture of the Yahma tribe today, there tends to be less diversity. Thus, these cultures are more unified. In U.S. culture, which greatly values freedom of choice with respect to both ideas and things, life is more complex and stressful. Many social problems such as crime, teenage rebellion, alcohol and drug abuse, and emotional disorders result from our greater ability to choose options. For example, if culture determined what job you would have when you graduate, your life would probably be less stressful. Even cultures that place a high value on freedom must achieve some measure of balance between shared cultural traits and the 72 Culture and the Individual potentially disintegrative forces of nonshared traits. Since about 1960, we have seen in the United States a decline in the social behavioral consensus that was more typical of the earlier years of the twentieth century. Some social scientists believe that this flexible value system could cause serious trouble for our society. Whether they are right, and whether our society will move toward more shared cultural traits, remains to be seen. As you can see, culture is the glue that holds society together, but like glue it can also cause difficulties for society. The reason is that societies are in constant transition, and to be suc- cessful a society must adjust to new technologies and relations with other societies. The glue that really held society together in one time period may be the sticky mess that in another time period entraps some members of society. Therefore, to understand the role of culture in society, we must consider the process of social change, the factors that contribute to that change, and the effect that change has on culture. C ulture, Society, and Social Change The culture of a society is constantly evolving to fit new situations. For instance, wars can create almost instantaneous change and can focus a society ’s interest, money, and energy on a single goal —winning. Total emphasis is placed on war-related activities rather than on more diverse activities. Whether a country wins or loses, the postwar society will sub- stantively differ from the prewar society. Some of these changes will be the result of an opponent ’s war effort, and others will be the result of interaction with members of other societies. The rate of social change has gradually gained momentum through the course of human social development. In early times, it started slowly. Many thousands of years ago, all human beings belonged to small, preliterate groups. Though the groups varied greatly in the nature and complexity of their cultures, as a rule the customs and traditions of each were so firmly established that its members tended to follow much the same way of life over a great many generations. Then the rate of social change increased. In effect, social change has behaved much like a snowball rolling down a hill. First, it starts out small and moves slowly; then, as it picks up more snow and gets larger, it gains momentum. Certain factors have been especially important in contributing to an increased rate of change. Outstanding among these is the development of agriculture. The growing of crops forced people to live in permanent dwellings. Increasing the food supply through storage brought about an increase in population and, gradually, the growth of towns and cities. Another important factor is the invention of writing, which made it possible to record human knowledge and to transmit it to future generations more adequately than ever before. As the sum total of human knowledge increased, the rate of its accumulation accelerated. Later developments that did much to speed up the rate of social change include the invention of printing, the rise of modern science, and the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the mid-1700s. The Industrial Revolution represented a shift in the methods of production; it entailed the replacement of hand tools by machines and power tools, and initiated the movement away from small-scale agriculture to the development of large-scale industry. This necessitated enormous numbers of workers for the factories, fewer workers in the fields, and therefore enhanced urbanization —the movement of people from rural to urban areas. A more recent factor of great importance in accelerating change has been the annihilation of distance through the development of rapid transportation and communi- cation. Today, we can use satellite transmission to simulcast events and ideas all around the world while they are actually happening or being formulated. Not only is the rate of technological change increasing, but so is the interaction among cultures. This is especially true in developing countries. Western science and technology are now spreading throughout the world at an accelerating pace, and further Westernization is a Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 73 likely prospect for many developing countries. The Internet —an interconnected set of computers through which people can communicate and transfer information —has trans- formed communication among individuals and is in the process of making our world one enormous community. With social interaction through Internet portals such as Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, and LinkedIn, people are interacting with others in ways that were pre- viously impossible, changing what determines and constitutes a community. (Older people often have a much harder time adapting to the avenues of social interaction, which the new technology allows, than do younger people.) One result of increasingly close contacts with distant lands is that the peoples of the world are becoming more and more alike in their customs, the products they use, and the ways they earn a living. Wide cultural differences among peoples can still be found and may never completely disappear. Today, bitter enmities seem ineradicable within countries such as Nigeria and between countries such as India and Pakistan. However, cultural differences are, on the whole, diminishing, and at a more rapid rate than ever before. We would be wrong, however, to see the diffusion of cultural traits as a one-way street. Styles of dress, food specialties, art forms, and modes of thought in other continents and societies are bringing changes to our own culture. Change in itself is not necessarily good or bad. It only means that old situations are replaced with new ones. Evolution has more definite implications than change. Evolution implies a gradual development from simpler forms of life, art, technology, or social organization to more complex forms. Social evol- ution is the long and complex process of change and interaction by which cultures gradually develop. Whether this change is desirable is debatable. From a Western, ethnocentric perspective, we often think of change as progress, but from a broader perspective, change is not necessarily progress —it may be regressive change. Change cannot be seen as progress unless we know what the life goals are and how those changes help us meet those goals. Views of what life goals should be differ; hence, views of whether social evolution is pro- gressive differ. Popular Theories of Social Change Human beings have a tendency to glorify the past. Some become firmly convinced that the good old days of their youth and childhood were far superior to the present. One of the earliest theories of social change was held by certain Greek philosophers who believed that humankind once lived in an ideal golden age. From this, we gradually descended to a silver, then a bronze, and finally an iron age. A quite opposite theory of social change has been popular in Europe and the United States in the last century or two. This is the doctrine of inevitable progress, the belief that the world is getting better and better. Not even two world wars and a multitude of smaller wars have been able to shake the faith of those who firmly hold this doctrine. Another theory of social change, popularized by Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee, is that such change runs in cycles. According to their theory, institutions, societies, and civil- izations pass through cycles of growth, climax, and decline. Modern civilization is no exception and is bound ultimately to disintegrate. This cycle theory of social change is based on the idea that history repeats itself. Some cycle theorists maintain that modern civilization is now on the verge of a decline, and to support this contention they point to the fate of certain past civilizations, including ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Cycle theories vary considerably, but they all tend to support the thesis that civilizations first advance, ultimately reach a peak, and finally decline. Other attempts to explain social change have relied on the supernatural, racial charac- teristics, economic conditions, cultural diffusion, or invention. Any given culture, however, is the result of too many factors to be explained adequately by any simple formula. Yet one thing is sure: Change is inevitable. Humans ’ relationship to their environment is dynamic, no matter where they live, and this dynamic relationship produces change. 74 Culture and the Individual Factors Causing Cultural Change We now look at some of the most important social forces that cause cultural change, together with the problems that change has brought about. We begin with a discussion of technological development; then we examine the role of religion, ideologies, cultural diffusion, wars, planned group action, geography, and climate. Technological Development. Technological development begins with discovery and invention. A discovery is something learned about the physical or social environment that was not known before. In the past, explorers have discovered new islands and continents, astronomers have discovered laws that regulate the motions of the heavenly bodies, and anthropologists have discovered many interesting differences between the cultures of preliterate peoples. Discoveries about the natural world often furnish the basis for inven- tions. For example, the discoveries about electricity from some of the great scientists made it possible for Thomas Edison to invent the incandescent electric lightbulb and other useful devices. An invention is a new way of doing something or a new object or mechanical device developed to serve some specific purpose. It is a cultural innovation devised by one or several individual members of a social group. Inventions may be either material or nonmaterial. Familiar machines such as the lawn tractor and the airplane are material inventions. Old-age insurance and crop rotation are examples of nonmaterial inventions. One of the greatest of all nonmaterial inventions was the alphabet, which made possible our present system of writing and printing. An invention is really a special kind of discovery, and hence no sharp line can be drawn between the two. We can call the making of fire by striking together flint stones either a discovery or an invention. All mechanical inventions involve the discovery that materials combined and used in certain ways will produce certain desired results. Inventions bring about changes in technology, and in modern societies technological change has been a powerful force behind social change. A good example is the computer, which is changing our lifestyle and culture in many ways. Computerized robots are replacing workers in many jobs, tiny robots are being developed for medical uses, and the Internet is changing the way we shop and communicate with others. Similarly, developments in biotechnology are changing our lives and soon may make it possible for us to choose characteristics for our children and to influence medical treatment. Technological change has become so important to understanding society that we devote an entire chapter, Chapter 6, to a deeper consideration of the issues. Cultural Diffusion. Once a new cultural element is well established in one society, it may spread to others. Cultural diffusion is the name given to the spread of cultural traits from one social group to another. In other words, not all the elements found in the culture of a given group were invented or developed within that group. In most cases, the greater part of the content of any culture has been borrowed from other cultures. In most societies, cultural diffusion is an extremely important factor in social change. Societies isolated from outside contacts tend to be static, whereas those that can readily communicate with other groups constantly acquire new cultural elements. However, contact does not always lead to cultural diffusion. For example, the Amish society in the United States has significant contact with mainstream U.S. culture. Despite this contact, Amish society has maintained its separate cultural identity through careful nurturing and has shunned many modern technological developments. Cultural diffusion, more than any other factor, has been responsible for the development of Western civilization. Western civilization was nurtured in Europe, and its center is still there. Yet most of the basic elements of this civilization did not originate in Europe but were borrowed from other peoples in other parts of the world. Our modern number system, Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 75 so much more flexible than that of the Romans, was borrowed from the Arabs, who in turn borrowed it from the Hindus in India. Without this number system or a good substitute, it would be almost impossible for us to carry on the mathematical cal- culations now required by both business and science. Again, our alphabet, which with modifications is used for writing and printing all European languages, was borrowed originally from the Phoenicians of Africa. It seems probable that they, or a neighboring people speaking a similar Semitic language, were the original inventors. 2 Ideas and Ideologies. Social change may also be initiated by new ideas. Relatively simple, practical ideas may result in inventions that soon are accepted and become a recognized part of the cultural pattern —a new type of dance, a new kind of business corporation, or a new mechanical gadget. However, not all new ideas are of this type. Some represent important changes in social attitudes and basic social values. Such ideas may in time gain a powerful hold on minds, as did the concepts of “liberty, equality, and fraternity” of the French Revolution, or the civil rights movement in the United States in the 1960s. Often they come to represent hopes and aspirations that, though they can never be fully realized, can be approached in a variety of ways. Once ideas of this kind become well established in any society, they become a powerful force for continuing social change in directions that are thought to lead toward their realization. Religions, which embody people ’s conception of what is good and what is bad, often are vital forces for social change. For example, as we stated earlier, religious groups played an important role in the civil rights movement, and in the early 2000s some Evangelical Christian churches were exerting pressure on government on issues as diverse as abortion and foreign policy. Even in the modern world, it usually takes considerable time for major new ideas to gain a firm foothold. Various writers have maintained that social change is always motivated by the dis- coveries or theories of great thinkers of a past generation. Karl Marx, for example, had little effect on society during his lifetime; British economist John Maynard Keynes ’s economic ideas of the 1930s did not have any great impact on the public or on gov- ernment policies until the 1960s. An ideology is an organized system of ideas for remodeling society to bring it “nearer to the heart’s desire.” We may regard it as a composite of ideas, values, and emotions. Those who believe in an ideology often support it with religious fervor. Fascism, communism, socialism, and democracy are all ideologies. Each has its system of values, and each would organize society — supposedly to further the common good —according to a somewhat different pattern. No ideology ever achieves the ideal society that its adherents envision. We regard our U.S. society as democratic, but we often are keenly aware that we fall short of the democratic ideal in many ways. Collective Action. Most social changes take place gradually and are not planned and carried out by a central agency. At times, however, social changes of importance are brought Download 441.68 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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