Culture and the Individual s ociety, Culture
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1681712355 Chapter 4
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YOU ARE WRONG ! Ideologies are systems of values that are fervently held. Cartoon Stock 2 The Phoenician alphabet contained only consonants. The Greeks, who were the first Europeans to appro- priate this alphabet, added vowels. 76 Culture and the Individual about more or less rapidly by planned group action. Group action by an entire society, such as a modern nation, usually means government action, because the government is the only agency that can make and enforce rules that in theory apply to the whole social group. Japan is a nation that has experienced a great social transformation within the past 150 years. It has changed from a feudal society to a modern, highly industrialized democracy. Much of this change has been brought about by government policies that were specifically designed to bring Japan into the modern world. The outstanding twentieth-century examples of drastic and far-reaching social changes carried out by governments on a vast scale are found in the former Soviet Union and in China. There, in two of the largest and most populous countries of the world, when the communist leaders came into power, they completely changed in a relatively short time many basic aspects of the political, social, and economic structure. In an attempt to create societies based on the communist ideology of Karl Marx, the state seized vast amounts of property from the middle- and upper-class owners, uprooted millions of peasants from their holdings and put them to work on collective farms or communes, and took over the operation and expansion of practically all productive enterprises. But the achievement of such broad and rapid changes was possible only through the establishment of powerful dictatorships that had small regard for the rights and freedoms of individuals. In the 1990s, many of these communist dictatorships ended. Eastern Europe went through dramatic upheavals: Several communist systems were overthrown; the Soviet Union broke up into various countries; and all of these countries experienced enormous political, social, and economic change. In 2011, it was the Middle East that went through violent social upheavals in what became known as the Arab Spring. People revolted against strong dictatorships, which the Arab people had accepted for decades, and demanded new forms of government. The result was quite different than the result most people hoped for. War broke out in some countries and others returned to repressive governmental regimes. As of 2016, the region was chaotic and volatile. Important social changes can also be brought about in democratic countries through planned government action, but only if the action has popular support. However, such changes are implemented more slowly and are much less drastic than those that can be made by a dictatorship that has strong control over the press. Even dictatorships must, however, have some support from the people, as was demon- strated by the Arab Spring. To be effective in promoting social change in a democracy, government action must either reflect the established beliefs of the people or change those beliefs relatively quickly. If legislation violates what the majority of citizens believe to be their just rights and privileges, it has little chance of success. For instance, the Prohibition amendment to the U.S. Constitution, legally in force from 1919 to 1932, failed and was finally repealed because the majority of Americans felt that outlawing the sale of liquor was an unreasonable violation of their personal liberties. Technology is changing the way people organize, and thereby affecting the nature of social change. For example, in 2012, when a neighborhood watch volunteer killed an unarmed black teenager and was not charged with a crime, within days, millions of people quickly signed a petition demanding that the person be arrested. He was. Before the Internet and social networking, such a quick, spontaneous movement would have been impossible. Geography and Climate. When people live in a given region over a long period of time, they become adjusted to local conditions of geography and climate. A society, for example, set on the edge of an ocean would be more prone to utilize marine resources —fish for food, shells as jewelry, and perhaps greater trade owing to the oceanic access —than would a landlocked society. Changes in the natural environment can and do occur. In extreme cases, droughts, earthquakes, the exhaustion of important natural resources, changes in climate, and the like may require radical cultural adjustments. Geography and climate are also important factors in social change when people migrate from one region to another. The European settlers who emigrated to the Americas, Africa, Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 77 Australia, and New Zealand found many differences of climate, topography, and natural changes, especially in food, clothing, houses, and ways of earning a living. We consider these issues in more detail in Chapter 5. Language and Cultural Change Social change takes place over long periods of time and often is difficult to discern. Because our perceptions of the past are imperfect, our knowledge of the past is also limited and imperfect. We don ’t know what was; we only know what is. One way to get an idea of the change that takes place is to consider the evolution of languages. Some social scientists believe that all modern languages sprang from a single root —spoken by a tiny population that probably lived in Africa or Asia about twenty thousand years ago. How much a language can evolve can be seen by comparing the Old English phrase for “How are you?” in a book like Beowulf (eighth century A.D. ): “Hal! Geard weallas!” (it reads like a foreign language) to that same phrase in Shakespeare (sixteenth –seventeenth century A.D. ): “How art thou?” to a modern variant: “How ya doin’?” Given how much languages can change without our noticing, we should not be surprised by how much cultures can change and how different cultures can be from one another. Factors Stabilizing Culture The various factors of social change lead to a dynamic, continually altering society. Change and culture will often conflict, with culture providing strong resistance to social change. In the present-day United States, underlying the many changes constantly taking place in our cul- ture is a great body of stabilizing elements that give continuity to our way of life. Stability of Social Norms. In spite of the high value that some industrial societies place on so-called progress, human beings appear basically conservative. The human mind and personality are so constituted that once people acquire certain beliefs, attitudes, and pat- terns of behavior, they have difficulty changing them. This is especially true of the basic elements in our culture that we acquire unconsciously in the impressionable years of early childhood. Our beliefs and attitudes may include some approval of change —for example, changes in fashions —but only within limits. The mores, the principal institutions of our society, and even many of its conventions are so firmly impressed on us that they become an essential part of our own personalities. For example, the tradition that women need to be protected from the harsh realities of commercial competition, the rough and tumble of military life, and the demands of heavy physical labor played a role in the failure of the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Habit. A chief reason for the persistence of conventions, mores, and social institutions is that they become largely habitual for all members of the social group. Habits are ways of behaving that have been learned so well that they can be carried on without conscious attention. Once acquired, however, they are difficult to change because they become a part of the individual ’s personality. Value Attachment. Another reason for the persistence of conventions, mores, and insti- tutions is that we and our group attach values to them. In the case of conventions, these values may be small, but in the case of mores and certain basic institutions they are great. When we believe that established patterns of behavior have high moral value and when, in addition, they arouse in us strong emotions, these patterns become resistant to change. Social changes of any importance, even though favored by the majority, are likely to meet opposition from many individuals and groups who have vested interests. A vested interest is a privilege or advantage that an individual enjoys because of the status quo, which is the existing 78 Culture and the Individual state of affairs. A skilled plasterer has a vested interest in the plastering trade, and is not likely to favor substituting wallboard for plaster. Various unions in the building industry, in order to protect the jobs of their members, have fought against prefabricated housing and have insisted on retention of slower, more expensive, on-the-spot building methods. Industry and labor are not alone in opposing, for selfish reasons, the introduction of new elements into our culture. Many people stand to lose by changes in the status quo, not only materially but also in power or prestige. Theologians, philosophers, and scientists have again and again opposed new ideas and new knowledge for fear that their own established beliefs and theories would be discredited. Social Change versus Social Stability Many of the things we value in our modern society —for example, our relatively high standards of living —could not have been brought about without a receptive attitude toward social change, because all change produces new situations. However, if change occurs very rapidly, it may create new problems for which we are unprepared. Instead of introducing a better world, it can bring on periodic crises and give people a constant sense of uncertainty and insecurity. Every social group feels the need for some degree of stability. If this stability is to be maintained, change in our basic institutions must be gradual. It must take place by evolution rather than by revolution. For any large modern society to meet the needs of its people requires a remarkably complex organization; the organization can be challenged, it can be adapted, it can be changed, but any belief that it can be destroyed and quickly replaced with something better is unrealistic. Social revolutions are never complete, and they bring few of the results that were envisioned. The communist revolution in Russia, after years of struggle and con- fusion, produced Stalin; and the National Socialist revolution in Germany produced Hitler. S ocial Change and Social Problems Although not all social scientists would agree on the exact nature of a social problem, for our purposes the following definition suffices. For a social problem to exist, two conditions must be fulfilled. First, there must be wide recognition of some condition that adversely affects the welfare of a significant number of people. Second, there must be a belief that this condition can and should be changed. In other words, a social problem is a situation that has been recognized as adversely affecting the welfare of large numbers of people and for which it is believed a solution exists. To admit the existence of a social problem clearly implies the possibility of change, for no matter how undesirable a situation may be, it is not a problem unless we believe there is a way to change it. In primitive societies, drought, famine, and pestilence may not have been regarded as problems because nothing could be done about them. They were simply accepted. However, they became problems if it was believed there were ways to avert them —for instance, by making adequate sacrifices to the gods. In a sense, social problems are always individual problems, for it is individuals who experience their adverse effects. We call them social problems for two reasons: first, because they affect such a significant proportion of people as to constitute a threat to the welfare or safety of the whole group; and second, because they cannot be adequately met by individuals. If they are to be solved at all, it must be by some kind of group action. This becomes clear when we consider such major social problems as widespread poverty, disease, recurrent periods of mass unemployment, crime, family disorganization, and war. As would be expected, a large modern society is much more likely to possess complex social problems than a smaller society. Larger societies often contain important subgroups Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 79 with differing cultural patterns, and these subgroups are likely to be subject to inconsistencies, strains, and conflicts that speed up social change and often are intensified by it. When we attempt to define and study any particular social problem, we encounter certain difficulties. For one thing, every social problem is closely related to a number of other social problems and is therefore highly complex. To fully understand one problem, we must know something about the others. Thus, to understand fully the problem of family disorganization and divorce, we may, for example, need to know something about poor housing, unem- ployment, and social classes. There is seldom any simple or complete solution for a major social problem. The causes are always complex, and practical remedies are difficult to find or implement. Moreover, the action necessary to solve or mitigate a social problem may be effectively blocked by public indifference and ignorance and by the opposition of vested interests. This does not mean that all attempts at social improvement are useless. It does mean, however, that a number of our major social problems are likely to remain with us in some form or degree for the indefinite future. Cultural Lag and Social Problems Though some elements in culture may change while others remain relatively constant, the various aspects of a given culture are by no means entirely independent of one another. To illustrate, religion may have a substantial influence on technological change. On the one hand, it may encourage technological change by teaching that material progress is in accord with the divine will; on the other hand, it may discourage such change by teaching that mechanical innovations are works of the devil. The late eminent sociologist William F. Ogburn assigned great importance to what he called cultural lag as a source of social disorganization. According to his theory, the culture of any society constitutes a pattern of interrelated elements. Once integration and stability have been achieved, a change in any one part of the pattern may create strains and disturbances in the closely related parts. Eventually, adjustments will be made to restore harmony, but meanwhile there may be a considerable time lag during which tension persists. In modern industrial societies, it is technological change that sets the pace. According to Ogburn ’s theory, technological progress produces rapid changes in the material aspects of our culture, but the nonmaterial aspects fail to adjust, or they do so only after an excessive time lag. As a result, many troublesome social problems are created. Cultural lag is the slowness in the rate of change on one part of a culture in relation to another, resulting in a maladjustment within society. A fre- quently cited cultural lag is the failure of political organizations to adjust to advances in transportation. To illustrate, the present system of counties and county governments in the United States was estab- lished when the only way to travel to the county seat was by horse and buggy. Because twenty miles or so was the practical limit of a day ’s travel, larger units of local government would have been difficult to administer. Today there is no such restriction on travel, but there has been little change in existing lines of local government. Cartoon Stock 80 Culture and the Individual Limitations of the Cultural Lag Theory The cultural lag theory is useful, provided we clearly understand its meaning and its limitations. In the first place, we must not assume that changes in the material aspects of culture always precede changes in the nonmaterial aspects. There is a constant interaction between the two, and in the long run technological progress itself is largely dependent on certain nonmaterial factors such as social attitudes and forms of social organization. Most, if not all, of the material products of culture originate in the human mind, and new material devices will not be invented and put to use unless the nonmaterial cultural atmosphere is favorable. The rapid material progress characteristic of present-day society is itself the result of earlier changes in our nonmaterial culture, changes that made possible the development of modern machine technology. We have already called attention to some of these earlier developments. One was the increased receptivity to change that was brought about by historical movements such as the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the great voyages of discovery. Another closely related factor was the development of mental attitudes that made it possible to apply the scientific method to the search for truth. In the second place, when changes occur in the material culture we may sometimes have difficulty in agreeing on the kinds of adjustments needed in the nonmaterial culture. Consider, for example, the invention of the automobile and its widespread adoption as a means of transportation. The automobile brought about many social changes, including changes in the customs of courtship and dating. One of its effects was to enable dating couples to escape, to some degree, the close supervision of their elders. Did this represent an unsatisfactory adjustment of our nonmaterial culture to the automobile? Some observers maintained that it did. They considered it an example of cultural lag and argued that new ways of supervising dating couples had to be devised to maintain moral standards. Others, however, regarded greater freedom in the relations between the sexes not as a problem but as a development that represented social progress. A re You PC? Social change affects our everyday life. A recent example of this is the PC phenomenon, which has been much in debate on college campuses and elsewhere since the early 1990s. PC stands for “politically correct.” To be PC is to be attuned to an unstated but nonetheless strong and reasonably well-defined set of social norms emphasizing minority rights, women ’s rights, social justice, and environmentalism. It is a derogatory term that was adopted in use in response to the social pressure on individuals to meet those norms. In the early 1980s, the pressures on many college campuses for individuals to be PC were rather strong, but the phrase did not exist. New courses, course requirements, and departments were instituted at many schools in women ’s studies, ethnic studies, and the environment. The underlying philosophy of some of these pres- sures went against the grain of some individuals, as did the sometimes strong-arm tactics (such as sit-ins and taking over buildings) supporters used to implement and demand change. Supporters justified these strong- arm tactics on the grounds that ours is a repressive society and, given that repression, the ends justify the means. This justification went against the grain of another Western social norm —toleration and respect for others ’ rights—leading a number of people, includ- ing some who supported the social norms that the strong-arm tactics were meant to achieve, to repudiate the movement. It also led to the adoption of the term PC, which was used by Nazis to describe individuals who believed that the white Aryan race was superior to all others. The Nazi association brought out the disson- ance between the strong-arm tactics used by some PC supporters and the norms of toleration and respect for individual rights. The debate between PC supporters and opponents concerns conflicting social norms —toleration versus social justice. PC supporters argue that one should not be tolerant of injustice, and that if our society were truly tolerant and maintained respect for all others, the movement wouldn ’t be needed. But because our society isn ’t, it is necessary to be intolerant of injustice and intolerance. Social science doesn ’t tell us whether the PC movement is right or wrong, but it does help us put it in perspective and have a better appreciation for the inevitable tensions that social change brings about. Society, Culture, & Cultural Change 81 But even if there is general agreement that the nonmaterial culture has not satisfac- torily adjusted to changes in the material culture, making the desired adjustments may be difficult or, conceivably, impossible. The word lag implies optimistically that the satis- factory solution of social problems resulting from technological change is merely a matter of time, but in some cases this time may never come. Our society ’s increased medical knowledge of fetal abortive processes has only added to the social conflict surrounding that issue, for instance. C ontrasts among Cultures The interaction between culture and social change leads not only to social problems within a society but also to problems among various societies. The reason is that different cultures often evolve along quite different paths. For example, in our culture women and men are considered equal. In certain other cultures, a woman ’s role is fundamentally different from a man ’s role. (For example, in some Islamic societies a woman is not allowed to drive a car.) Archaic tribal societies often differ from one another greatly, but unless they are brought into contact with powerful outside influences, they tend to be relatively stable. Industrial societies are much more subject to change. In them people ’s wants tend to multiply rapidly, as do the products with which to satisfy them. From one culture to another, family relations, economic activities, government, religion, and art take on an endless variety of forms. The Interaction of Humans and Society Though we are all, in part, products of our cultural environment, no two persons will have exactly the same personal experiences. Furthermore, they will not inherit biologically the same physical and mental constitutions, and these inherited differences will cause them to react differently to many of the elements in their cultural environment. Thus, the study of humankind is a complicated one that moves from unique traits of individuals to general aspects of society and back again to unique aspects of individuals. Therefore, such a study must encompass a wide range of issues. Cultural Relativism The doctrine of cultural relativism asserts that all cultures are for the most part equally valid. That is, cultures develop in a way that best suits the population ’s needs, and the cultural traits within a culture have a specific purpose. Today, few students of society would question the proposition that any culture that has enabled a group to meet its basic needs, and to survive over a long period of time, is worthy of respect, as are the individuals who practice its customs and follow its moral precepts. Cultures are not as a whole good, bad, right, or wrong; they simply exist and must be judged relative to their own value system. Therefore, to understand other cultures, we must try to look at them through the eyes of those who have been brought up under their influence rather than through our own eyes. If we do this, we may find that these cultures meet needs we have failed to recognize. For example, nineteenth-century missionaries to certain South Sea islands were shocked to find that the native women wore no clothing above the waist. Part of their mission was to convert the women to wearing Mother Hubbards, shapeless dresses that kept their bodies well covered. To the missionaries, this seemed a great gain. But from a health stand- point, it may have been unfortunate. In the tropical rainy climate of the islands, the Mother Hubbards were wet much of the time, and they may have contributed to poor health. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures by a person ’s own culture and its standards, the belief of a group that its people and its way of life are superior to all others. 82 Culture and the Individual An extreme example in the twentieth century was the Nazi doctrine that the Germans were a super race. In modern societies, feelings of ethnocentrism and chauvinism increase during times of insecurity or economic depression. Pre-Nazi Germany was in a severe depression, which many believe enabled Adolf Hitler to rise to power. In the late twentieth century, we saw, or were forced to recognize, the power of religion as a divisive force. In countries such as Northern Ireland, Nigeria, Pakistan, and the former Yugoslavia, opposing religious groups have fought bitterly with each other within their own borders, and their internal differences can affect their relations with foreign countries as they sometimes attempt to influence beliefs in other nations. Frequently, these religious convictions are mixed with political problems, making the cultural issues complex and recalcitrant. At one time, ethnocentrism may have had a survival value for some nonliterate tribal societies by giving them confidence in the superiority of their own people and own way of life. But nowadays, although ethnocentrism still contributes to the cohesion of a society, survival is likely to depend on achieving understanding and cooperation among races, peoples, and nations. Although some ethnocentrism is necessary to hold a society together, the conscious cultivation of ethnocentrism generally results in misunderstanding, prejudice, ill feeling, and conflict. Approach to the Study of Society In this book we are primarily concerned with the nature of modern U.S. society. Most of the discussion is therefore centered on our own culture and its basic values and on the problems that arise in connection with efforts to achieve these values. However, we can understand our own society better if we see it in perspective. Hence, throughout the book we call attention to other societies and cultures, to the characteristics common to all cultures, and to the differ- ences that distinguish them. Because it is not the function of science to determine social values, we simply assume for the most part the validity of the basic ideals of our own democratic society, and occasionally we attempt to clarify these ideals. But our principal efforts are concerned with giving a picture of the general character of U.S. society. We explain its values and its social institutions. We also discuss its failures to achieve its goals and the frustration and conflict that are sometimes the result, and we consider the nature of its major problems and explore the possibilities of solving them through social action. 0 ° 40 ° 60 ° 40 ° 60 ° 40 ° 40 ° 80 ° 80 ° 100 ° 100 ° 120 ° 120 ° 140 ° 140 ° Download 441.68 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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