Environmental laboratory exercises for instrumental analysis and
partial degradation of an organic pollutant to by-products as well as complete
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Environmental Laboratory Exercises for Instrumental Analysis and Environmental Chemistry
partial degradation of an organic pollutant to by-products as well as complete mineralization to carbon dioxide. Anaerobic transformations include dehalo- genations, nitro reductions, dealkylations, azo-linkage reductions, and sulfoxide and sulfone reductions. Two excellent reviews of these abiotic, anaerobic reactions can be found in Macalady et al. (1986) and Schwarzenbach and Gschwend (1990). Environmental Laboratory Exercises for Instrumental Analysis and Environmental Chemistry By Frank M. Dunnivant ISBN 0-471-48856-9 Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 167 The basic abiotic reaction used in this exercise to illustrate anaerobic degradation (Figure 15-1) is similar to the transformation of pollutants by microorganisms in the environment. However, in the abiotic reactions, natural organic matter (NOM) takes the place of microbes to shuttle the electrons from the bulk electron donor (in our case, hydrogen sulfide) to the pollutant (in our case, a nitro group on substituted benzenes). In this reaction, the reaction rate is relatively slow between the pollutant and the bulk electron donor. However, the bulk electron donor reduces the natural organic matter rapidly, which in turn reduces the organic pollutant rapidly. The sequence of reductions for nitrobenzene and substituted nitrobenzenes is shown in Figure 15-2. Before the laboratory exercise is attempted, students should read and discuss (in lecture class) the papers of Macalady et al. (1986), Schwarzenbach et al. (1990), and Dunnivant et al. (1992). In the laboratory experiment following the lecture, students study one or all of the chemical reduction experiments presented here. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Mark-Cody Reynolds (Whitman College, Class of 2004) collected all of the experimental data for this exercise. REFERENCES Dunnivant, F. M., R. P. Schwarzenbach, and D. L. Macalady, Environ. Sci. Technol., 26, 2133–2141 (1992). +ne – –ne – +ne – –ne – +ne – –ne – Very Slow Rate Fast Rate Moderate Rate Bulk (e – Donor) ox Mediator (NOM) ox (Pollutant) ox (Pollutant) red Mediator (NOM) red Bulk (e – Donor) red (Pollutant) ox (Pollutant) red Figure 15-1. Conceptual representation of the electron shuttle system. (Modified from Glass, 1972.) NO 2 Nitrobenzene NO Nitrosobenzene HNOH Phenylhydroxylamine NH 2 Aniline +2e – + 2H + H 2 O +2e – + 2H + H 2 O +2e – + 2H + H 2 O Figure 15-2. Reaction mechanism for the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline. (From March, 1985.) 168 REDUCTION OF SUBSTITUTED NITROBENZENES Glass, B. L., Agric. Food Chem., 20, 324 (1972). Macalady, D. L., P. G. Tratnyek, and T. J. Grundl, J. Contamin. Hydrol., 1, 1–28 (1986). March, J., Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reductions, Mechanisms, and Structure, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, 1985. Schwarzenbach, R. P., R. Stierli, K. Lanz, and J. Zeyer, Environ. Sci. Technol., 24, 1566 (1990). Schwarzenbach, R. P., and P. M. Gschwend, Chemical transformations of organic pollutants in the aquatic environment, in Aquatic Chemical Kinetics, W. Stumm (ed.), Wiley, New York, 1990. REFERENCES 169 IN THE LABORATORY All solutions for this laboratory will be prepared by the laboratory assistant. This is a complicated experiment, and you should proceed carefully through the procedures. The laboratory exercise will take at least two weeks to complete. During the first laboratory period, you will make your experimental solution for the degradation. In the time between the first laboratory period and the second, you will be assigned times to come into the laboratory, take samples, and extract them into organic solvent to stop the reduction reaction. During the second laboratory period, you will analyze the samples on either the GC or HPLC. Safety Precautions ! Although this experiment presents no unusual hazards, standard precautions should be used in handling organic solvents and in disposing of organic wastes. Dispose of organic wastes in an organic waste container. ! Avoid inhaling the H 2 S vapors by always using the fume hood for all manipulations involving the stock solution and samples. ! Use gloves as needed when handling organic compounds. Chemicals and Solutions ! 0.100 M solutions of all substituted nitrobenzenes. ! ACS-grade Na 2 S used as the bulk electron donor for the reduction reaction. A stock solution of about 0.50 M S "2 is prepared and standardized with thiosulfate solution. The volume recommended is 100 mL stored in a 125-to 150-mL septum-capped serum vial. ! The iodometric titration method is used to standardize the thiosulfate titrant for measuring the concentration of sulfide in the stock solution. To accomplish this, the following chemicals are required: (1) About a 0.025 M solution of sodium thiosulfate; (2) a standard potassium biiodate solution (0.00210 M); and (3) KI crystals, concentrated H 2 SO 4 , and starch indicator. ! The pH of the system is controlled with a HEPES [N-(2-hydroxyethyl)pi- perazine-N 0 -2 ethane-sulfonic acid] buffer solution. A 1.00 L stock solution (0.200 M) is required. ! The natural organic matter used in this experiment is a specially prepared Fluka solution. The standardization procedure is described in the notes to the instructor. ! For GC analysis: Ethyl acetate is used for extraction of samples. Ethyl acetate is spiked with 100 mM unsubstituted nitrobenzene, an internal standard (for GC analysis only). A sample volume (from your experimental solution) of 0.500 mL is added to a 2.5-mL autosample vial. Ethyl acetate (0.500 mL) is added to the vial and shaken for 1 minute to extract the 170 REDUCTION OF SUBSTITUTED NITROBENZENES nitrobenzene compounds into solution. The resulting ethyl acetate layer is withdrawn with a Pasteur pipet and placed in another autosampler vial for GC or HPLC analysis. ! GC standards: A range of standards in ethyl acetate are required, ranging from 5 to 100 mM, depending on the detection limit of your instrument. All standards and sample extracts should contain 100 mM unsubstituted nitro- benzene as an internal standard. ! For HPLC analysis: Ethyl acetate is used for extraction of samples. Ethyl acetate can be spiked with 100 mM unsubstituted nitrobenzene to act as an internal standard, but in HPLC analysis there is no real advantage in this (in fact, it may interfere with the resolution of your analyte nitrobenzene). A sample volume of 0.500 mL is added to a 2.5-mL autosample vial. Ethyl acetate (0.500 mL) is added to the vial and shaken for 1 minute to extract the nitrobenzene compounds into solution. The resulting ethyl acetate layer is injected into the HPLC system using a six-port valve. ! HPLC standards: A range of standards in ethyl acetate is required, from 5 to 100 mM, depending on the detection limit of your instrument. Injection volumes can range from 10 to 25 mL. Equipment ! GC analysis: a capillary column GC with a flame ionization detector. The capillary column should be an HP-1, 30 m by 0.320 mm outside diameter, with a 0.25- mm film thickness. ! HPLC analysis: an HPLC equipped with a high-pressure pump, UV–Visible detector, six-port sampling valve, and C-18 HPLC column (10 cm by 4.6 mm). The mobile phase used was 0.01 M hydroxylamine hydrochloride buffer (pH 6.0) in methanol/water (typically 3:2 v/v). The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min and the injection volume was 6 to 10 mL. IN THE LABORATORY 171 PROCEDURE A basic procedure for study of the first-order degradation process is given below. For the other experiments (pH dependence, dependence on substitute pattern, dependence on humic acid concentration) you will have to modify the procedures slightly. Preparation of Experimental Solutions in Serum Vials In this procedure you will make a solution containing H 2 S, HEPES pH 7.2 buffer, 3-chloronitrobenzene, HCl to neutralize the basic nature of the S 2 " , deionized water, and Fluka humic acid. Blank solutions should also be taken through the procedure and are identical to the experimental solution but without humic acid. You should keep a record of the volumes of each solution added since you will add deionized water in step 3 to bring the total volume to 40 mL. 1. To a 50- to 75-mL serum vial, add 20.0 mL of the 0.10 M pH 7.2 HEPES buffer solution. 2. Add an appropriate volume of the filtered Fluka humic acid solution to obtain the desired NOM concentration (and the desired rate). To obtain a concentration of 26 mg/L, you will need to add approximately 1.0 mL of stock NOM solution. Use M 1 V 1 ¼ M 2 V 2 to determine the needed volume of your stock NOM solution. Your stock Fluka humic acid solution should be at a concentration of 1000 mg/L. 3. Add 0.300 mL of 1 M HCl for the pH 7.2 solutions (this will neutralize the basic nature of the S 2 " ). 4. Add sufficient deionized water to bring the solution to a standard volume of 40 mL after addition of the following solutions. 5. Purge the solution of atmospheric oxygen by attaching a low-pressure N 2 source to Tygon tubing and then to a syringe needle. Place an additional needle in the septum (but not connected to the N 2 source) to allow the atmospheric oxygen and added N 2 to exit the system. Purge the serum vial for at least 5 minutes. 6. With a syringe and needle, add a volume of the calibrated stock Na 2 S solution to obtain 5 mM S 2 " and let the solution sit overnight to equilibrate with the natural organic matter (NOM). Depending on the concentration of your stock solution, the volume of 0.5 M S 2 " should be approximately 0.40 mL. 7. With a syringe and needle, add sufficient 0.100 M 3-chloronitrobenzene (or other substituted nitrobenzene) to obtain a final concentration of 100 mM nitrobenzene in the serum vial. Depending on your stock solution concentration, the volume will be approximately 40 mL. 8. Shake the solution and sample immediately for an initial concentration measurement of your analyte. Sample by filling a 0.50-mL glass syringe 172 REDUCTION OF SUBSTITUTED NITROBENZENES with nitrogen gas (to avoid the introduction of atmospheric oxygen), inserting the needle through the septum, adding the nitrogen, and filling the syringe with solution. Remove the syringe from the serum vial, remove all gas bubbles, and adjust the volume to 0.50 mL. Add the 0.50 mL to a 2-mL vial containing 0.500 mL of ethyl acetate solution. (If you are analyzing your samples by GC–flame ionization detector, you will need to have unsubstituted nitrobenzene in the ethyl acetate at a concentration of 100 mM). 9. After adding your 0.50-mL sample to each vial for analysis, seal it, shake it rigorously, open the vial to add more oxygen, and repeat once more to ensure that the reduction reaction is stopped (the oxygen will oxidize the sulfide and stop the reduction process). 10. After the initial sample, take samples of your solutions at timed intervals based on the humic acid concentration and the expected rate. Follow steps 8 and 9 for these as well. You should collect approximately 10 data points, ranging from time zero through three half-lifes of your reaction. Analyze the ethyl acetate layer for substituted nitrobenzene using a gas chromatograph or high-performance liquid chromatograph. GC Conditions ! Temperatures: Front inlet ¼ 250 $ C Detector ¼ 250 $ C ! Inject 1 mL of sample ! Flame ionization detector (hydrogen–air flame) ! He carrier gas ! Column: Agilent Technologies HP-5, 30.0 m by 320 mm by 0.25 mm inside diameter ! Temperature program: Initial temperature: 75 $ C for 10.00 minutes Ramp 1: 10.00 $ C/min to 135 $ C, hold for 17.0 minutes Ramp 2: 20.0 $ C/min to 230 $ C, hold for 5 minutes for cleaning HPLC Conditions. C-18 HPLC column (10 cm by 4.6 mm). The mobile phase used was 0.01 M hydroxylamine hydrochloride buffer (pH 6.0) in methanol/water (typically 3:2 v/v). The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min and the injection volume was 6 to 10 mL. Waste Disposal All solutions should be disposed of in an organic waste container. PROCEDURE 173 ASSIGNMENT To be determined by your laboratory instructor, depending on whether you conduct the basic nitro-reduction experiment or another experiment related to this reduction. 174 REDUCTION OF SUBSTITUTED NITROBENZENES ADVANCED STUDY ASSIGNMENT 1. List and give anaerobic reduction reactions for three important pollutants. 2. How is the bulk electron donor involved in these reactions? 3. Explain how you will determine the first-order degradation rate from your data set. ADVANCED STUDY ASSIGNMENT 175 DATA COLLECTION SHEET |
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