Environmental Management: Principles and practice

Displaced people
People relocate for a variety of reasons, some willingly, some reluctantly. Many
are economic migrants who do not have the same legal status as refugees, and may
be less welcome in the areas they settle. The distinction between refugee and
economic migrant is likely to be blurred where displacement has been caused by
structural adjustment or other economic causes of marginalization. World-wide
there were over 15 million, possibly as many as 50 million refugees in 1998. Eco-
refugees are probably the largest category of displaced people and their numbers
could increase considerably. People may be forcibly displaced from their familiar
surroundings and livelihoods, or they may be tempted to move. Displacement can
be through dam construction and reservoir flooding, persecution, land-grabbing,
civil unrest or warfare, accidental pollution like that of Chernobyl, market or
communication changes which make cash crop agriculture less viable, social or
economic changes that trigger abandonment or neglect of traditional livelihoods,
irrigation schemes, large-scale cropping or ranching development, political
expediency or planners’ desire to provide services for scattered populations (e.g.
the concentration of villages together in Tanzania under the ujamaa scheme)
(Parasuraman, 1994).
Those forced or tempted to move may relocate within national boundaries
(relocatees) or move to another country (refugees) (as discussed above there is debate
concerning whether refugee status includes those who move seeking better livelihood,
i.e. economic migrants). Migrants share some of the characteristics of these groups

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but retain their roots, returning home seasonally, from time to time, or at the end of
an extended period of employment, and in all probability remitting cash between
visits. Migrants can cause environmental degradation in the areas they have left as a
consequence of labour depletion which then leads to unsustainable livelihood
strategies. However, there are situations where migrants are able to earn enough
funds to finance improved land husbandry, or simply by leaving prevent excessive
subdivision of landholdings and over-exploitation of resources.
Government relocation and land development schemes sometimes support
voluntary migration of those seeking employment or new land. In Amazonia and
many other regions of the world, the bulk of relocation is undertaken by unassisted
voluntary migrants. Displaced people, even when officially aided, may have difficulty
in sustaining new or recovering their old livelihoods. Even if they are compensated
and supported, the unassisted are likely to fare worse. Displaced people may face
conflict with host populations in the areas they move to, may have problems with
other refugee groups and frequently adopt short-termist strategies for survival which
damage the vegetation, soil and other resources (Black, 1994).
There can be beneficial effects of relocation: selective migration of skilled
and resourceful people contributes to a host country; depopulation of an area by
relocation of people may lead to nature conservation and tourism benefits. The
Scottish Highlands (UK) are such an example—a region of scenic beauty in large