Environmental Management: Principles and practice

Participatory approaches to data gathering, problem solving and development
implementation have been developed by anthropology, agricultural extension, public
administration and development agencies, and have been adopted for environmental
management (Messerschmidt, 1986; Cumberland, 1990; Chambers, 1994a; 1994b;
1994c). If the environmental manager does not understand society and history as
well as ecology, then serious difficulties can arise—Fairhead and Leach (1996) note
the past misinterpretation of the nature of forest ‘islands’ in the savannas of Guinée.
Similar warnings are given by Leach and Mearns (1996), that received wisdom is
not enough, and that local knowledge, and objective multidisciplinary or
interdisciplinary study are needed.
Facilitators
There are so many bodies and individuals who promote and assist environmental
management that it is impossible to give a complete review; in the following section
sources of funds, research bodies and channels of communication are singled out.
Funding bodies
Funding bodies can support environmentally desirable developments or withhold
money until proposals are modified to meet required standards. Starting with the
World Bank in the early 1970s, most funding bodies have developed environmental
management units, guidelines and manuals (Turnham, 1991). There have been cases
where failure to carry out environmental management measures has led to withdrawal

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of funding from large projects already well under way (e.g. the Narmada Dam in
India).
Research bodies
There is a huge diversity of bodies conducting research aimed at improving
environmental management: universities, private research companies, independent
international research institutes, and UN or UN-related agencies. Most research is
applied and in response to perceived needs, but some is anticipatory and warns of
possible threats and potentially useful strategies.
Communications
The Internet is playing an increasingly important role in environmental protection
and management (Anon., 1995; Anon., 1996; McDavid, 1995; DeRoy, 1997). NGOs
can exchange information, report problems beyond a national boundary (before
they can be prevented by a state), and are able to co-ordinate activities. For
individuals involved in environmental management the Internet has become an
important source of information and means for dissemination and discussion
(Schuman, 1996). The media are also playing an important part in improving public
awareness of environmental issues, although unfortunately it is not always objective
or accurate. Improved telecommunications make monitoring easier as instruments
can radio information back (often in real time) via satellite and phone lines to
research or administrative bodies. Development of computers, software and GISs
make data handling and analysis far more powerful than was dreamed possible
even ten years ago.