Environmental Management: Principles and practice

Controllers
Traditions and spirituality
Traditional societies commonly control resource use through local rulers, who may
allocate land for cultivation, decide whether to move a village, etc. Religion and
superstition can also effectively regulate resource usage. Unfortunately, these controls
may lose effect as contact with the outside world increases.
Religion and spirituality also play a part in shaping environmentalist approaches
(Hallman, 1994; Gottleib, 1996), and in nations where religion is widespread
environmental management policies will need to be adjusted to the constraints and
opportunities that result. In a number of countries religious bodies are in the front
line of action to protect indigenous peoples and the environment, in promoting
improvements of slum areas, and in poverty alleviation.
Environmental ethics and green spirituality alone are not enough: they do not
guarantee adequate environmental management co-ordination, generate data, or

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monitor things closely enough. The skills of environmental managers and ecologists
are vital to determine the best strategies for the survival of fauna and flora and to
organize sustainable land and resource use. Having said that, it is valuable for the
public to have environmentally sensitive ethics.
NGOs
NGOs have become important watchdogs of corporate, government and special-
interest group activities. They have a multifaceted role: lobbying at international
meetings and at national government level; media campaigning to increase public
awareness and empowerment; fund-raising for environmental management,
conservation and environmental education; researching environmentally sound
strategies and approaches; acting as ginger groups to identify environmental problems
and fight for their control. Between 1909 and 1988 international organizations (bodies
like IUCN, UNEP, etc.) increased from around 37 to 309 and NGOs (e.g. Oxfam,
Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, etc.) expanded from 176 to 4,518 (Princen and
Finger, 1994, provide a list of environmental NGOs).
An important role for the NGOs is to act as a link between local, national and
international activities. Many NGOs have a tiered local-to-international structure
(e.g. Friends of the Earth), and command huge resources in terms of funding and
expertise. There is growing networking by NGOs, and increasing numbers of
coalitions and, with compact satellite telephones and the spread of the Internet, it is
becoming increasingly difficult for governments or other powerful groups to keep
issues hidden or to subdue opposition.
NGOs involved in environmental issues are a very diverse group: some are
catalysts, some key actors; they promote, condemn, empower, expose and monitor;
some are politically orientated and some apolitical; there are also scientific NGOs
(bodies like the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research—SCAR, which deals
with Antarctica). At the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development
environmental NGOs played both official and parallel roles (in the Global Forum)
and were active in promoting sustainable development. Unfortunately, some NGOs
promote misguided policies which project their polarized perceptions, and others
act in a careless or obstructionist manner.
Environmental management problems can be difficult to solve with existing
inter-state regulatory and scientific approaches. It is in these situations that NGOs
can perform a crucial linking role. Princen and Finger (1994:221; 223) felt that NGOs
are especially valuable for linking knowledge from science with the grassroots (i.e.
to people and real-world politics). Often they are swifter to respond to environmental
problems and challenges than other organizations or governments, and in many cases
grow from the grassroots in response to issues (Ekins, 1992b; Zeba, 1996). Some
grassroots NGOs are somewhat ephemeral. However, large NGOs may have wide
experience and command more resources than some countries or corporations.
There is a risk that NGOs may be pressured to find neat, comprehensive
solutions to complex problems; their supporters expect to see ‘magic bullet’ solutions

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and sometimes lose interest or withdraw support if these are not quickly forthcoming.
This limits the staying-power of such an NGO faced with a problem (Vivian, 1994).