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0 = ω(J 0 ) is non-resonant, it is always possible to determine formally the functions A and B (parametrising the deformation to invariant tori of the torus of frequency ω 0
and (12.123). Two problems are still open: (a) the question of the convergence of the Fourier series expansions (12.123) of the functions A (k) (ψ) and B (k) (ψ);
(b) the question of the convergence of the power series (12.112). The first question has an easy solution. For fixed µ > l − 1, consider the set of diophantine frequencies ω 0
exponent µ): C γ,µ = {ω 0 ∈ R l ||ω 0 · m| ≥ γ|m| −µ }.
12.6 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 527 Since the Hamiltonian H 0 is non-degenerate, to every ω 0
γ,µ there corresponds a unique vector J 0 of the actions for which ω(J 0 ) = ω 0 . Let A γ,µ
= {J 0 ∈ A|ω(J 0 ) ∈ C γ,µ
}. (12.127)
Evidently A γ,µ = ω −1 (C γ,µ
) (12.128)
(recall that the hypothesis of non-degeneracy of H 0 guarantees that the map J → ω(J) is a local diffeomorphism). Now fix a value of the actions J 0 ∈ A γ,µ , so that the corresponding frequency is ω
= ω(J
0 ) ∈ C γ,µ . Then we can extend the arguments considered in the proofs of Theorems 12.4 and 12.9 to the equations (12.124) and (12.125) for the Fourier series expansions of A (k) (ψ) and of B (k) (ψ), and prove their convergence. P roposition 12.6 If the Hamiltonian H 0 is non-degenerate in the open set A, for fixed J 0 ∈ A γ,µ the functions A (k) : T
l → R
l and B
(k) : T
l → R
l which
solve the system (12.124), (12.125) have a convergent Fourier series expansion, for every k ≥ 0. Problem (a) is therefore solved. The solution of problem (b) is much more difficult. However, it is necessary to give this question an affirmative answer if the existence of deformations of a torus into invariant tori is to be proven. Poincar´ e was sceptical of the possibility of proving the convergence of the Lindstedt series, and in M´ ethodes Nouvelles, volume II, p. 104 he comments that Supposons pour simplifier qu’il y ait deux degr´ es de libert´ e; les s´ eries ne pourraient- elles pas, par exemple, converger quand x 0 1 et x 0 2 ont ´ et´
e choisis de telle sorte que le rapport
n 1 n 2 soit incommensurable, et que son carr´ e soit au contraire commensurable (ou quand le rapport n 1
2 est assujetti ` a une autre condition analogue ` a celle que je viens d’´ enoncer un peu au hasard)? Les raisonnements de ce chapitre ne me permettent pas d’affirmer que ce fait ne se pr´ esentera pas. Tout ce qu’il m’est permis de dire, c’est qu’il est fort invraisemblable. [Suppose for simplicity there are two degrees of freedom; would it be possible for the series to converge when, for example, x 0 1 and x 0 2 —the initial conditions—are chosen in such a way that the ratio n 1 /n
of the frequencies—in our notation ω 0 = (n 1 , n 2 )—is irrational, however such that its square is rational (or when the ratio n 1
2 satisfies some other condition analogous to the one I just stated a bit randomly)? The arguments in this chapter do not allow me to rule out this case, although it appears to me rather unrealistic.] Weierstrass, as opposed to Poincar´ e, was convinced of the possibility that the Lindstedt series could converge (see Barrow-Green 1997). It is nevertheless surprising that the condition referred to as ‘a bit randomly’ by Poincar´ e—implying that ω 0
correct. 528 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 12.6 The Kolmogorov–Arnol’d–Moser theorem (see Kolmogorov 1954, Arnol’d 1961, 1963a, Moser 1962, 1967), whose proof goes beyond the scope of the present introduction, guarantees in practice the convergence of the power series (12.112) as long as the frequency ω 0 satisfies a diophantine condition. T heorem 12.12 (KAM) Consider a quasi-integrable Hamiltonian system (12.106) and assume that the Hamiltonian H is analytic and non-degenerate. Let µ > l − 1 and γ > 0 be fixed. There exists a constant ε c > 0, depending on γ, such that for every J 0 ∈ A γ,µ there exists a deformation {T ε
ε ∈(−ε
c ,ε c ) of the
torus T 0 = J 0 ×T l into invariant tori for the quasi-integrable system (12.106). Remark 12.12 It is possible to prove that ε c =
2 ) (see P¨ oschel 1982, Arnol’d et al. 1983). Remark 12.13 Since we assume that H 0 is non-degenerate, the correspondence between actions J and frequencies ω is a diffeomorphism, and there therefore exists the inverse function J = J( ω) of ω = ω(J) = ∇ J H
(J). Hence, thanks to (12.65), |A\A
γ,µ | =
A \A γ,µ d l J = ω (A)\C γ,µ det
∂ 2 H 0 ∂J i ∂J k (J(ω)) −1 d l ω ≤ c −1 |ω(A)\C γ,µ |. (12.129) Assume for simplicity that the open set A of R l is obtained as the preimage of (0, 1) l via the map ω → J(ω). Then ω(A) = (0, 1) l , and from (12.129), taking into account (12.80), it follows that |A\A
γ,µ | ≤ c
−1 ( |(0, 1) l | − |C
γ,µ ∩ (0, 1)
l |) ≤ c
−1 aγζ(µ + 2 − l). (12.130)
By Remark 12.12 γ = O( √ ε), and hence the Lebesgue measure of the comple- ment, in the phase space, of the set of invariant tori is O( √
to 0 for ε → 0.
Remark 12.14 The set A γ,µ has a rather complex structure: it is closed but totally disconnected, and it is a Cantor set. 3 Because of the density in R l of resonant frequencies, the complement of A γ,µ
is dense. Remark 12.15 In practice, in the proof of the KAM theorem one constructs a canonical trans- formation near the identity of the variables (J, χ) to new variables (J, χ) with generating function χ · J + εW (χ, J, ε) and a new Hamiltonian K(J, ε), satisfying H 0 (J + ε ∇ χ W ) + εF (J + ε ∇ χ W , χ) = K(J, ε) 3 A closed set is a Cantor set if it is totally disconnected and has no isolated points. 12.7 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 529 every time that J ∈ A γ,µ
. The Hamilton–Jacobi equation therefore admits a solu- tion in the set of invariant tori A γ,µ (see Chierchia and Gallavotti 1982, P¨ oschel 1982). Hence to the system (12.106) there are associated l first integrals of the motions (the new actions). However, these integrals are not defined everywhere, but only on A γ,µ ; hence, although the dependence on χ and on ε is regular, they do not have a regular dependence on J, and the result is not in contradiction with Theorem 12.8. For more details on this topic, which we had no pretension to treat exhaustively, we recommend reading chapter 5 of Arnol’d et al. (1983). 12.7
Adiabatic invariants Consider a Hamiltonian system with one degree of freedom, depending on one parameter r, so that its Hamilton function has the form H = H(p, q, r). (12.131) As an example, we can consider a pendulum (see Example 11.11) and take as parameter the length l, or a harmonic oscillator (see (11.28)) and treat the frequency ω as a parameter. If for every fixed value of the parameter r the system admits motions of rotation or of libration, the Hamiltonian (12.131) is completely canonically integrable and there exists a canonical transformation depending on the parameter r to action- angle variables (J, χ). Let W (q, J, r) be the generating function of this canonical transformation, where we emphasise the dependence on the parameter r. We denote by K 0 (J, r) the Hamiltonian corresponding to the new variables, and by ω 0 (J, r) = (∂K 0 /∂J )(J, r) the frequency of the motion. Note that the action J is a function of (p, q, r). Suppose that the system is subject to an external influence, expressed as a time dependence r = r(t) of the parameter r. If the rate of change of the parameter is comparable with the frequency ω 0 (J, r) of the motion of the system corresponding to a fixed value of r, in general the system is no longer integrable, because of the overwhelming effect of the external influence, and it is not possible to find a first integral—not even in an ‘approximate’ sense (note that the energy is not conserved, because dH/dt = ∂H/∂t = ∂H/∂r ˙r). The situation is however substantially different if the variation of the parameter in time is slow, and hence if | ˙r| ≤ ε 1, where r and t are dimensionless with respect to two respective ‘natural’ scales. 4 4
(Whitney smoothness) and prove that in this wider sense the dependence of W on W is smooth; see P¨ oschel (1982) for details. 530 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 12.7 In this case, the dependence on time of the parameter can be expressed through the so-called slow time: r = r(τ ), τ = εt, (12.132)
and it is possible to find a constant of the motion in an approximate sense that we now clarify. D efinition 12.11 A function A(p, q, r) is an adiabatic invariant of the system (12.131) subject to a slow variation (12.132) of the parameter r, if for every δ > 0 there exists ε 0 > 0 such that for every fixed ε ∈ (0, ε 0 ) and for every t ∈ [0, 1/ε] we have
|A(p(t), q(t), r(εt)) − A(p(0), q(0), r(0))| < δ, (12.133)
where (p(t), q(t)) is the solution of the system of Hamilton’s equations correspond- ing to H(p, q, r(εt)): ˙ p =
− ∂H ∂q (p, q, r(εt)), ˙ q = ∂H ∂p (p, q, r(εt)), (12.134) with initial conditions (p(0), q(0)). Remark 12.16 An adiabatic invariant is an approximate constant of the motion of the Hamilto- nian flow associated with (12.134) for a bounded time interval of length 1/ε, which grows indefinitely if the rate of change of the parameter ε → 0. If for a fixed value of ε > 0 a function A(p, q, r) satisfies equation (12.133) for all times t ≥ 0, then A is a perpetual adiabatic invariant. Remark 12.17 It is immediate to realise that the energy is not, in general, an adiabatic invari- ant. Consider, for example, a point particle in the absence of forces, whose mass changes slowly with time, so that its Hamiltonian is H = p 2 /2m(εt). If m = m 0 (2 − sin(πεt/2)), since p(t) = p(0), we have E (1/ε) = p 2 (0)/2m 0 = 2E(0).
T heorem 12.13 Assume that the Hamiltonian (12.131) is of class C 3 and that
the dependence r(τ ) of the parameter on the slow time has the same regularity. If there exists a δ > 0 such that for all τ ∈ [0, 1] we have ω 0 (J, r(τ )) > δ, (12.135)
the action J (p, q, r) is an adiabatic invariant. 12.7 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 531 Proof
Since the parameter depends on time, r = r(εt), the function W (q, J, r(εt)) generates a canonical transformation depending on time, and the new Hamiltonian is K(J, χ, εt) = K 0 (J, r(εt)) + ∂W ∂t
= K 0 (J, r(εt)) + εf (J, χ, εt), (12.136) where f (J, χ, εt) = r (εt)∂W /∂r. The corresponding Hamilton equations are ˙ J =
−ε ∂f ∂χ (J, χ, εt), ˙ χ = ω 0 (J, r(εt)) + ε ∂f ∂J
(12.137) We now seek the generating function W (χ, J , εt) of a canonical transformation near the identity that would eliminate the dependence on the angle in the Hamiltonian, to first order in ε, and hence a solution of K 0
∂χ , r(εt)
+ εf ∂W ∂χ , χ, εt + ∂W ∂t = K
0 (J , εt) + εK 1 (J , εt) + O(ε 2 ). (12.138) Setting W = χJ + εW (1) (χ, J , εt), substituting and equating the corresponding terms in the expansion in ε we find: K 0 (J , εt) = K 0 (J , r(εt)). (12.139) To first order we therefore have ω 0
∂W (1)
∂χ (χ, J , εt) + f (J , χ, εt) = K 1 (J , εt), (12.140) since
∂W ∂t = ε ∂W (1)
∂t = ε
2 ∂W (1) ∂τ = O(ε 2 ). (12.141) Condition (12.135) guarantees that the solution of (12.140) exists and (recall Theorem 12.1) is given by K 1
1 2π 2π 0 f (J , χ, εt) dχ, W (1)
(χ, J , εt) = 1 ω 0 (J , r(εt)) χ 0
1 (J , εt)
− f(J, ξ, εt)] dξ. (12.142)
532 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 12.8 The hypothesis that H is of class C 3 ensures that W (1) is of class C 2
generates a canonical transformation. From ˙ J = − ∂K ∂χ = O(ε
2 ), (12.143) it follows that, for every t ∈ [0, 1/ε], |J(t) − J(0)| = O(ε), (12.144)
and therefore our claim holds, as |J(t) − J(0)| ≤ |J(t) − J(t)| + |J(t) − J(0)| + |J(0) − J(0)|, (12.145) and the transformation from J to J is near the identity. Remark 12.18 Arnol’d (1963b) proved that the KAM theorem guarantees the perpetual adia- batic invariance of the action if the dependence of the parameter r on the slow time τ is periodic, and hence if there exists a T > 0 such that r(τ ) = r(τ + T ) for every τ . It is however necessary to impose the condition of non-degeneracy: ∂ 2 K 0 ∂J 2 = ∂ω 0 ∂J = / 0, (12.146)
to assume that the Hamiltonian is an analytic function of (p, q, r), and that the dependence of r on τ is also analytic. Remark 12.19 It is possible to extend Theorem 12.13 to the case of more degrees of free- dom, but the proof is much more complicated (see Neishtadt 1976, Golin et al. 1989), because one must overcome the difficulties generated by the presence of small denominators and by the dependence of the frequencies (and of the non- resonance condition) on the parameter. The proof is much simpler, and similar to that of Theorem 12.13, if the frequencies do not depend explicitly on the parameter (see Golin and Marmi 1990). 12.8 Problems
1. Compute the first order of the canonical perturbation theory for the Hamiltonian H = p
+ x 2 2 √ 2 2 + εx √ 2 . Write down explicitly the generating function W and the new action and angle variables J and χ . (Solution: J = J +(ε sin χ)/ √ J , χ = χ −(ε cos χ)/2J 3/2
, W = J χ + (εcos χ)/ √ J .)
12.8 Analytical mechanics: canonical perturbation theory 533 2. If V = − cos x − cos(x − t) compute u (1)
in the expansion (12.36). (Solution: u (1) = (1/ω
2 ) sin ξ + [1/(ω − 1) 2
− t).) 3. If V = − ∞
=1 e −k cos(x − kt) compute u (1) in the expansion (12.36). (Solution: u (1)
= ∞ k =1 [e −k /(ω − k)
2 ] sin(ξ
− kt).) 4. Prove that if V is a trigonometric polynomial of degree r, then u (n) in the
expansion (12.36) is a trigonometric polynomial of degree nr for every n ≥ 1.
5. Check directly that F (1) and F (2) in equation (12.92) are homogeneous trigonometric polynomials of degree 4 and 6, respectively. Prove that F (r)
is a homogeneous trigonometric polynomial of degree 2(r + 1). 6. Given the Hamiltonian H = J
1 + ωJ
2 + 4ε ω J 1 J 2 cos 2 χ 1 cos 2 χ 2 , prove that the Birkhoff series (12.86) to third order is given by H =J 1 + ωJ 2 + ε
J 1 J 2 ω − ε 2 J 1 J 2 ω 2 J 1 2ω + J 2 2 + J 2 − J 1 8(1
− ω) + J 1 + J
2 8(1 + ω)
+ ε 3 4J 2 1 J 2 2 ω 3 1 ω 2 + 2 ω − 2ω (1 − ω
2 ) 2 + J 1 + ωJ 2 ω 2 J 1 + J 2 8(1 + ω) + J 2 − J 1 8(1 − ω) + 8J 1 ω + 8J 2 + ε
3 J 2 − J 1 ω(1 − ω) J 2 − J 1 8(1 − ω) + 4J
2 + 4J 1 ω + J 1 + J 2 ω(1 + ω)
J 1 + J 2 8(1 + ω)
+ 4J 2 + 4J 1 ω . (The first two orders are computed quickly but the third order requires more work.) 7. Given the Hamiltonian H = J 1 + ωJ 2 + ε[J
2 + F (χ
1 , χ
2 )],
where F (χ 1 , χ 2 ) =
m∈Z 2 \0 e −|m
1 |−|m
2 | e i(m 1 χ 1 +m 2 χ 2 ) and ω is an irrational number, prove that the formal solution of the Hamilton–Jacobi equation (12.14) for H is given by H = J
1 + (ω + ε)J 2 ,
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