I m p e r I a L g a z e t t ee r o f I n d I a vol. X i I i
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- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- THE HIMALAYAS
- 1 3 2 THE HIM ALA YAS
- •THE HIMALAYAS T 3 3
- * 3 4 THE HIMALAYAS
- HINDOL * 3 5
VOL. XIll. k 1 3 o THE HIMALAYAS The Eurasian ocean distinguished by the name ‘Thetys,’ which spread over this area throughout the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic times, became driven back by the physical revolution which began early in Tertiary times, when the folding movements gave rise to the modern Himalayas. As relics of this ocean have been discovered in Burma and China it will not be surprising to find, when the ground has been more thoroughly explored, that highly fossiliferous rocks are preserved also in the Tibetan zone beyond the snowy ranges of Nepal and Sikkim. Of the minerals of value, graphite has been recorded in the Kumaun Division; coal occurs frequently amongst the Nummulitic (eocene) rocks of the foot-hills and the Gondwana strata of Darjeeling District; bitumen has been found in small quantities in Kumaun; stibnite, a sulphide of antimony, occurs associated with ores of zinc and lead in well-defined lodes in Lahul; gold is obtained in most of the rivers, and affords a small and precarious living for a few washers; copper occurs very widely disseminated and sometimes forms distinct lodes of value in the slaty series south of the snowy range, as in the Kulii, Kumaun, and Darjeeling areas; ferruginous schists sometimes rich in iron occur under similar geological conditions, as in Kangra and Kumaun; sapphires of considerable value have been obtained in Zaskar and turquoise from the central highlands; salt is being mined in quantity from near the boundary of the Tertiary and older rocks in the State of Mandi; borax and salt are obtained from lakes beyond the Tibetan border; slate-quarrying is a flourishing industry along the southern slopes of the Dhaola Dhar in Kangra District; mica of poor quality is extracted from the pegmatites of Kulu; and a few other minerals of little value, besides building stones, are obtained in various places. A small trade is developed, too, by selling the fossils from the Spiti shales as sacred objects. The general features of the great variety in vegetation have been illustrated in the quotation from Mr. Freshfield’s description of Sikkim. These variations are naturally due to an increase in elevation, and to the decrease in rainfall and humidity passing from south to north, and from east to west. The tropical zone of dense forest extends up to about 6,500 feet in the east, and 5,000 feet in the west. In the Eastern Himalayas orchids are numerically the predominant order of flowering plants; while in Kumaun about 62 species, both epiphytic and terrestrial, have been found. A temperate zone succeeds, ranging to about 12,000 feet, in which oaks, pines, and tree-rhododendrons are conspicuous, with chestnut, maple, magnolia, and laurel in the east. Where rain and mist are not excessive, as for example in Kulu and Kumaun, European fruit trees (apples, pears, apricots, and peaches) have been naturalized very successfully, and an important crop of potatoes is obtained in the west. Above about 12,000 feet the forests
THE HIMALAYAS become thinner. Birch and willow mixed with dwarf rhododendrons continue for a time, till the open pasture land is reached, which is richly adorned in the summer months with brilliant Alpine species of flowers. Contrasting the western with the eastern section we find that the former is far less rich, though it has been better explored, while there is a preponderance of European species. A fuller account of the botanical features of the Himalayas will be found in Vol. I, chap. iv. To obtain a general idea of the fauna of the Himalayas it is sufficient to consider the whole system as divided into two tracts: namely, the area in the lower hills where forests can flourish, and the area above the forests. The main characteristics of these tracts have been summarized by the late Dr. W. T. BlanfordIn the forest area the fauna differs markedly from that of the Indian Peninsula stretching away from the base of the hills. It does not contain the so-called Aryan element of mammals, birds, and reptiles which are related to Ethiopian and Holarctic genera, and to the pliocene Siwalik fauna, nor does it include the Dravidian element of reptiles and batrachians. On the other hand, it includes the following animals which do not occur in the Peninsula—Mammals : the families Simiidae, Procyonidae, Talpidae, and Spalacidae, and the sub-family Gymnurinae, besides numerous genera, such as Prionodon, He/ictis, A/rto/ivx, Athe- rura, Nemorhaedus, and
Cemas. Birds: the families Eurylaemidae, Indicatoridae, and Heliornithidae, and the sub-family Paradoxornithinae. Reptiles: Platysternidae and Anguidae. Batrachians : Dyscophidae, Hylidae, Pelobatidae, and Salamandridae. Compared with the Penin sula, the fauna of the forest area is poor in reptiles and batrachians. ‘ It also contains but few peculiar genera of mammals and birds, and almost all the peculiar types that do occur have Holarctic affinities. The Oriental element in the fauna is very richly represented in the Eastern Himalayas and gradually diminishes to the westward, until in Kashmir and farther west it ceases to be the principal constituent. These facts are consistent with the theory that the Oriental constituent of the Himalayan fauna, or the greater portion of it, has migrated into the mountains from the eastward at a comparatively recent period. It is an important fact that this migration appears to have been from Assam and not from the Peninsula of India.’ Dr. Blanford suggested that the explanation was to be found in the conditions of the glacial epoch. When the spread of snow and ice took place, the tropical fauna, which may at that time have resembled more closely that of the Peninsula, was forced to retreat to the base of the mountains or perished. At such a time the refuge afforded by the Assam Valley and the hill ranges south of it, with their damp, 1 ‘The Distribution of Vertebrate Animals in India, Ceylon, and Burma,’ Pro ceedings, Royal Socicty, vol. lxvii, p. 484. K 2
1 3 2 THE HIM ALA YAS sheltered, forest-clad valleys, would be more secure than the open plains of Northern India and the drier hills of the country south of these. As the cold epoch passed away, the Oriental fauna re-entered the Himalayas from the east. Above the forests the Himalayas belong to the Tibetan sub-region of the Holaretic region, and the fauna differs from that of the Indo Malay region, 44 per cent, of the genera recorded from the Tibetan tract not being found in the Indo-Malay region. During the glacial epoch the Holarctic forms apparently survived in great numbers. Owing to the rugged nature of the country, which makes travelling difficult and does not invite immigrants, the inhabitants of the Himalayas present a variety of ethnical types which can hardly be summarized briefly. Two common features extending over a large area may be referred to. From Ladakh in Kashmir to Bhutan are found races of Indo-Chinese type, speaking dialects akin to Tibetan and professing Buddhism. In the west these features are confined to the higher ranges ; but in Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Bhutan they are found much nearer the plains of India. Excluding Burma, this tract of the Himalayas is the only portion of India in which Buddhism is a living religion. As in Tibet, it is largely tinged by the older animistic beliefs of the people. Although the Muhammadans made various determined efforts to conquer the hills, they were generally unsuccessful, yielding rather to the difficulties of transport and climate than to the forces brought against them by the scanty though brave population of the hills. In the twelfth century a Tartar horde invaded Kashmir, but succumbed to the rigours of the snowy passes. Sub sequently a Tibetan soldier of fortune seized the supreme power and embraced Islam. Late in the fourteenth century the Muhammadan ruler of the country, Sultan Sikandar, pressed his religion by force on the people, and in the province of Kashmir proper 94 per cent, of the total are now Muhammadans. Baltistan is also inhabited chiefly by Muhammadans, but the proportion is much less in Jammu, and beyond the Kashmir State Islam has few followers. Hinduism becomes an important religion in Jammu, and is predominant in the southern portions of the Himalayas within the Punjab and the United Provinces. It is the religion of the ruling dynasty in Nepal, where, however, Buddhism is of almost equal strength. East of Nepal Hindus are few. Where Hinduism prevails, the language in common use, known as Pahari, presents a strong likeness to the languages of Rajputana, thus confirming the traditions of the higher classes that their ancestors migrated from the plains of India. In Nepal the languages spoken are more varied, and Newarl, the ancient state language, is akin to Tibetan. The Mongolian element in the population is strongly marked in the east, but'towards the west has been pushed back into
•THE HIMALAYAS T 3 3 the higher portion of the ranges. In Kumaun are found a few shy people living in the recesses of the jungles, and having little intercourse with their more civilized neighbours. Tribes which appear to be akin to these are found in Nepal, but little is known about them. North of Assam the people are of Tibeto-Burman origin, and are styled, passing from west to east, the Akas, Daflas, Miris, and Abors, the last name signifying ‘unknown savages.’ Colonel Dalton has described these people in his
From the commercial point of view the agricultural products of the Himalayas, with few exceptions, are of little importance. The chief food-grains cultivated are, in the outer ranges, rice, wheat, barley, marua, and amaranth. In the hot, moist valleys, chillies, turmeric, and ginger are grown. At higher levels potatoes have become an important crop in Kumaun; and, as already mentioned, in Kulu and Kumaun European fruits have been successfully naturalized, including apples, pears, cherries, and strawberries. Two crops are obtained in the lower hills; but cultivation is attended by enormous difficulties, owing to the necessity of terracing and clearing land of stones, while irrigation is practicable only by long channels winding along the hill sides from the nearest suitable stream or spring. As the snowy ranges are approached wheat and buckwheat, grown during the summer months, are the principal crops, and only one harvest in the year can be obtained. Tea gardens were successfully established in Kumaun during the first half of the nineteenth century, but the most important gardens are now situated in Kangra and Darjeeling. In the latter District cinchona is grown for the manufacture of quinine and cinchona febrifuge. The most valuable forests are found in the Outer Himalayas, yielding a number of timber trees, among which may be mentioned
and
tun
Higher up are found the deodar and various kinds of pine, which are also extracted wherever means of transport can be devised. In the Eastern Himalayas wild rubber is collected by the hill tribes already mentioned, and brought for sale to the Districts of the Assam Valley. Communications within the hills are naturally difficult. Railways have hitherto been constructed only to three places in the outer hills : Jammu in the Kashmir State, Simla in the Punjab, and Darjeeling in Bengal. Owing to the steepness of the hill-sides and the instability of the strata composing them, these lines have been costly to build and maintain. A more ambitious project is now' being carried out to connect the Kashmir Valley with the plains, motive power being supplied by electricity to be generated by the Jhelum river. The principal road practicable for wheeled traffic is also in Kashmir, leading from Rawalpindi in the plains through Murree and Paramula
* 3 4 THE HIMALAYAS to Srinagar. Other cart-roads have been made connecting with the plains the hill stations of Dharmsala, Simla, Chakráta, Mussoorie, Dalhousie, Nainí Tal, and Ranlkhet. In the interior the roads are merely bridle-paths. The great rivers flowing in deep gorges are crossed by suspension bridges made of the rudest materials. The sides consist of canes and twisted fibres, and the footway may be a single bamboo laid on horizontal canes supported by ropes attached to the sides. These frail constructions, oscillating from side to side under the tread of the traveller, are crossed with perfect confidence by the natives, even when bearing heavy loads. On the more frequented paths, such as the pilgrim road from Hardwár up the valley of the Ganges to the holy shrines of Badrinath and Kedarnath, more sub stantial bridges have been constructed by Government, and the roads are regularly repaired. Sheep and, in the higher tracts, yaks and crosses between the yak and ordinary cattle are used as beasts of burden. The trade with Tibet is carried over lofty passes, the difficulties of which have not yet been ameliorated by engineers. Among these the following may be mentioned: the Kangwa La (15,500 feet) on the Hindustan-Tibet road through Simla; the Mana (18,000), NitI (16,570), and Balcha Dhurá in Garhwál; the Anta Dhurá (17,270), Lampiya Dhura (18,000), and Lipü Lekh (16,750) in Almora; and the Jelep La (14,390) in Sikkim. [More detailed information about the various portions of the Himalayas will be found in the articles on the political divisions referred to above. An admirable summary of the orography of the Himalayas is
contained in
Lieut.-Col. H.
H. Godwin-Austen’s presidential address to the Geographical Section of the British Association in 1883 ( Proceedings ,
1883, p. 610; and 1884, pp. 83 and 112, with a map). Fuller accounts of the botany, geology, and fauna are given in E. F. Atkinson’s
[United] Provinces, 3 vols. (1882-6). See also General Strachey’s ‘Narrative of a Journey to Manasarowar, 5
Geographical Journal, vol. xv, p. 150. More recent works are the
(Lahore, 1899); C. A. Sherring,
(1906) ; and D. W. Freshfield,
(1903), which contains a full bibliography for the Eastern Himalayas. An account of the Himalayas by officers of the Survey of India and the Geological department is under preparation.]
(also called Chhaja in its upper course).—A river of the United Provinces, rising in the southern slopes of the Siwaliks in Saharanpur District (30 o 7' N., 77 0 47' E.), and draining the central portions of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, and Meerut. It flows generally towards the south-west, and falls into the Jumna after a course of HINDOL * 3 5 160
miles, a few miles after entering the north-western corner of Bulandshahr. The K ali
N adi (W est ) is the chief tributary. Its water is nowhere used for irrigation, but part of its channel forms an important link between the Ganges and Jumna. Thus water can be passed into the Hindan from the U pper G anges
C anal
, and thence, by means of a cut made from a point close to Ghaziabad in 1877, i nt ° the Jumna above Okhla, increasing the supply of water for the A gra C anal . This cut was made wider in 1884 and further improved in 1 go 1, and is now navigable.
—Head-quarters of the nizdmat and
tahsll of the same name in the State of Jaipur, Rajputana, situated in 26° 44' N. and 77 0 3' E., about 75 miles east by south-east of Jaipur city. It is connected by metalled road with Hindaun Road (also called Mandawar), a station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway, 32 miles to the north, and with Karauli town, about 16 miles to the south. Population (1901), 11,938. Hindaun was once an extensive city, but it suffered from the devastations of the Marathas, and the rampart which once surrounded it is now in ruins. It is, however, the principal mart for the cotton, grain, oilseeds, and opium grown in this part of the State, and the road above mentioned is an important trade route. A fair, in honour of Mahabir, whose temple is said to be very old, is held yearly in April, attended chiefly by Jats and Minas. The iron mines at Karwar, a few miles to the east, have long been abandoned; but a good deal of red and white sandstone is quarried in the neighbourhood, and used for building and other purposes. At Mandawar is a State cotton-press, which during the year 1904 yielded a net profit of Rs. 7,200, or about 6 per cent, on the capital cost. The town of Hindaun possesses a post office, 6 schools attended by about 230 pupils, and a hospital with accommodation for 4 in-patients. Hindol. —One of the Tributary States of Orissa, Bengal, lying between 20° 29' and 20° 49' N. and 85° 6' and 85° 30' E., with an area of 312 square miles. It is bounded on the north and east by the State of Dhenkanal; on the south by Baramba and Narsinghpur; and on the west by Angul District. Hindol consisted originally of three or four petty States completely buried in jungle, till .two brothers, belonging to the family of the Kimcdi Raja in Madras, drove out the old chiefs and formed their territories into one principality. The State has an estimated revenue of Rs. 70,000, and pays tribute of Rs. 5 5 1
to the British Government. The population increased from 37,973 in 1891 to 47,180 in 1901, part of the growth being due to an accession of new settlers. The number of villages is 234, one of which, Hindol, is the residence of the chief; the density is 151 persons per square mile. Of the total population, all but 200 are Hindus. The most numerous castes are Chasas (r 1,000) and Pans 1 3 6 HIXDOL (7,000). The old Cuttack-Sambalpur high road runs through the State in a south-easterly direction, and small quantities of country produce are thus brought to the MahanadI and there sold to travelling merchants. A branch road, 7^ miles in length, connects the main road with the village containing the Raja’s residence. Excellent oranges are grown in the Raja’s gardens, and the soil generally appears to be well suited for the cultivation of this valuable fruit. The State maintains one middle English school, 3 upper primary, and 57 lower primary schools, and a charitable dispensary. Hindoli.—Head-quarters of the
of the same name in the State of Bundi, Rajputana, situated in 25 0 35' X. and 75° 30' E., about 15 miles north-west of Bundi town. Population (1901), 2,162. The village is picturesquely situated at the base of some low hills, on one of which stands a palace built by Pratap Singh, a member of the ruling family, in the middle of the seventeenth century. To the north of the village lies an artificial lake, about one square mile in area, called the Rain Sagar after a Mahajan named Rama Sah, who is said to have constructed its embankment about 500 years ago. At the north eastern extremity of the dam is a group of handsome cenotaphs, all of the seventeenth century. Hindostan. See
H industan . Hindubagh.— Tahsil of the Upper Zhob subdivision of the Zhob District, Baluchistan, lying between 30° 36' and 31 0 50' N. and 67° 27'and 68° 46' E. It is bounded on the north by the Toba-Kakar range, which separates it from Afghanistan. Its area is 3 , 2 7 5 square
miles, and population (1901) 1 5 , 7 7 7 . The land revenue, including grazing tax, amounted in 1903-4 to Rs. 24,000. The head-quarters station, which bears the same name as the
, lies in the south-west corner. The
possesses 76 villages. The main valley, called Zhob
from its boat-like shape, lies along the upper course of the Zhob river, while the northern part covers the grassy uplands of Kakar Khorasan. The greater part of the cultivation is irrigated; rains crops are comparatively insignificant. Under the Kand mountain lies the picturesque glen of Kamchughai. Asbestos deposits exist in the valley. Hindu Kush (Mountains of the Moon).—This great range, known to the ancient geographers as the ‘ Indian Caucasus/ may be said to start from a point near 37 0 N. and 74 0 38' E., where the Himalayan system finds its north-western termination in a mass of towering peaks, and to extend south-westwards across North-Eastern Afghanistan to about 34 0 30' N. and 68° 15' E. The first spur which it throws off to the north is from the vicinity of Tirich Mir, in the north-western corner of Chitral. Starting in a westerly direction, this spur takes a north ward curve and then again runs westward, dividing the Oxus from the
HINDU KUSH T 3 7 Kokcha : this may be termed the Badakhshan ridge, 'l'o the east of the Khawak pass, another spur runs north, and then sprays out north-east and north-west, separating the Kokcha drainage from that of the Kunduz : this may be called the Kokcha ridge. From the Khawak pass a branch goes north-west towards Kunduz or Kataghan,* where it ends, forming the Kunduz ridge: There is another spur, running almost parallel with this, which may be called the Khawak ridge. A fifth spur is the Koh-i-Changur, which divides the Kunduz (or Surkhab) from the Tashkurghan river. West of the Dorah pass a region of spurs is thrown out to the south, which form the Kafiristan watersheds ; and west again of these a great spur divides Panjshir from Kafiristan. The general elevation of the Hindu Kush from its eastern extremity to the Khawak may be taken as between 14,500 and 18,000 feet, while there are numerous peaks of between 20,000 and 25,000 feet. The range is everywhere jagged, precipitous, and arid : it is destitute of trees, and there is but little grass or herbage. Above 15,000 feet snow is perpetual. A more inhospitable region it is difficult to imagine, but the scenery is often sublime. No table-lands like those of Tibet support the northern sides of the Hindu Kush, which sinks abruptly into the low plains of Turkistan. Until recently, information about the Hindu Kush, and the entire mountain system of which it forms a part, has been extremely defective. But the inaccurate narratives of Moorcroft, Yigne, and others have been amplified, corrected, and partly superseded by the investigation of Sir Douglas Forsyth’s mission of 1873, and by the still more recent Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission in 1884-6 and Sir William Lock hart’s mission in 1885. In the eastern Hindu Kush region political relations with the tribes have been established on a firm basis, and the country right up to Kafiristan is no longer a terra incognita. Some
of the valleys of Kafiristan also have been visited by Sir George Robertson. The term ‘ Hindu Kush ’ was said by Sir A. Burnes to be unknown to the Afghans; but it is admitted by the same writer that there is a particular peak, and also a pass, bearing the name. 1 A systematic survey of the rocks of the Hindu Kush has never been made; but isolated observations at different times show that intrusive granitic and accompanying basic igneous rocks, resembling those of the crystalline axis of the Himalayas, are associated with schists, quartzites, slates, and limestones of the kind better known in the regions of Kashmir, Baltistan, &c. The limestones of Chitral are of unusual importance, on account of their including fossils which show their age to be Devonian. The association of this limestone with a purple sand stone and a boulder-bed is very similar to that which is known as the 1 Contributed by .Mr. 'I'. 1 1 . Holland, Director, Geological Survey ot India. |
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