Fundamentals of food technology study manual

2. MILK, PASTEURIZATION, MICROFLORA, DRIP, KEFIR, 
PROSTOKVASHA, ACIDOPHILIC MILK, ICE CREAM, SOUR CREAM, 
COTTAGE CHEESE, BUTTER, CHEESE. COOLING, FREEZING, 
SALTING III. CHAPTER TECHNOLOGY OF MEAT MILK AND CANNED 
PRODUCTS. 
2.1. Production technology of meat and meat products 
One of the main raw materials for the production of food products is black 
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. Meat industry enterprises include 
departments for preparation of cattle for slaughter, slaughtering, processing of 
byproducts, processing of intestines, processing of skin, cooling, production of 
sausage products, and production of semi-finished products. 
Black cattle are divided into four groups according to age and sex: 
cows, bulls, young cattle (from 3 months to 3 years) and calves (from 14 days 
to 3 months). In terms of fatness, except for calves, other black cattle are divided 
into three categories: high, medium and low. Calves are divided into the first and 
second categories. 
Different parts of the animal body have different quality of muscle tissue. The 
neck, abdominal walls, and load-bearing muscles are tough and tasteless, while the 
backbone, loin, and meat close to the bone are more flavorful and tender. 
Meat is made up of muscle and connective tissue. Muscle tissue is made up of 
bundles of fibers. Fibers are made up of muscle cells, which contain dissolved 
nutrients. Between the bundles of muscle tissue are connective tissues, between 
which nerve fibers and blood vessels are located. The ratio of muscle and 
connective tissue, as well as the thickness of muscle fibers in the meat of different 
animals, causes a difference in their quality. 
The quality of beef carcasses or cuts depends on the ratio of bone to soft 
tissue. The amount of bone depends on the animal's breed, age, sex, and obesity 
level. When completely separated, 22-29% of the bone from the beef body, 24-
32% from the sheep, and 12-15% from the pig. There are three types of bones: flat 
(ribs), tubular (bone marrow) and spongy (spine, ankle). Tubular and spongy ankle 
bones contain about 10-20% fat and 30% gelatinous substances. 
Meat is a highly nutritious product rich in proteins, fats, carbohydrates, 
enzymes, vitamins (A, V, D, E, RR), other nitrogenous substances and mineral 
salts, which are valued for their softness, taste and color. The tenderness and taste 
of the meat can be seen after it is processed, and the color is visible at the time of 
purchase. The most important of these indicators, especially for beef, is its 
tenderness. 
It is known to many that the softness of the muscle tissues of the meat 
depends on the thinness of the fibers, which in turn depends on the breed, age, and 
sex of the animal. Scientists have recommended several methods of maintaining 
and increasing the softness of muscle tissue during the preparation of cattle for 
slaughter. One of them is to increase the humidity in tissue cells. It is known that if 
the concentration of electrolyte ions such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, and 
calcium in the fluid outside muscle tissue cells decreases, water will leave the cell. 

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Therefore, maintaining or temporarily increasing the concentration of these ions 
makes it possible to maintain the moisture of the cells. If sodium chloride: 
potassium chloride: magnesium carbonate: calcium lactate = 4: 16.3: 1.3: If a 
mixture of complex electrolyte salts in the ratio of 9 is given, the tissues of 
slaughtered beef become soft. At the same time, after slaughtering, the structure of 
the cell membranes of beef tissues is damaged, and the maximum water retention 
capacity decreases. Therefore, the injection of special enzymes into beef before 
slaughter also gives the opportunity to preserve the softness of the tissues. 
However, the use of this method is limited due to the high cost of enzymes and 
some adverse effects (on the quality of beef liver). Therefore, the injection of 
special enzymes into beef before slaughter also gives the opportunity to preserve 
the softness of the tissues. However, the use of this method is limited due to the 
high cost of enzymes and some adverse effects (on the quality of beef liver). 
Therefore, the injection of special enzymes into beef before slaughter also gives 
the opportunity to preserve the softness of the tissues. However, the use of this 
method is limited due to the high cost of enzymes and some adverse effects (on the 
quality of beef liver). 
In addition, many methods of improving the softness and taste of meat after 
slaughtering have been thoroughly studied by scientists. For example, 25-30g per 
kilogram of sheep body weight to remove the specific smell of mutton. sodium 
glutamate should be injected, held for some time at a temperature of 42-450 С, and 
then cooled. 
Another quality indicator of commercial meat is its color. A change in color 
does not always mean that the nutritional value of the meat has decreased. 
However, there will be no product appearance. That's why long-term preservation 
of meat color has been thoroughly researched. The oxymyoglobin pigment in meat 
tissues gives the meat a beautiful red color. This pigment is oxidized in the air and 
turns into the brown-red pigment metmyoglobin. 
Meat is packaged as a food product, delivered to the consumer in the form of 
meat semi-products, smoked meat products, and sausage products. 
Semi-finished meat products from various animal meats are natural, whole, 
minced according to the processing method; chilled and frozen semi-products are 
produced according to their storage. Examples of natural meat semi-products are 
entrecote, steaks, fillets and langets, which differ from each other by the part of the 
beef body and thickness. Examples of half-baked products are romsteks and 
schnitzels, which are made from a piece of meat marinated in egg and batter. Semi-
finished products with minced meat include cutlets and schnitzels, which differ 
from each other in terms of spices, consistency, taste and shape. 
Smoked meat products are made from pieces of beef, sheep, pork and poultry 
meat. Raw smoked, boiled-smoked and smoked-boiled types are produced 
according to the processing method. For this, the pieces are salted and then dried 
and smoked. Smoking is smoked for 5 days at a temperature of 18-20 0 С with 
smoke from the slow burning of special wood. 
Sausage products are products in which meat mince is salted and seasoned, 
processed, placed in intestines, and heated until it is ready for consumption. The 

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nutritional value and digestibility of sausages is higher than that of meat. Because 
various raw materials with high nutritional value are added to its composition. 
These include milk, eggs, starch, wheat flour, cereals, soy protein, etc. Salt, sugar, 
spices, garlic, nitrites and nitrates are added to the minced meat to give the sausage 
a unique taste and aroma. Sausage casings give it a certain shape and protect it 
from dirt and microorganisms. Sausage casings are used both natural casings and 
artificial casings. Sausages are divided into boiled, semi-smoked and smoked 
groups depending on the method of heat treatment. 
In the preparation of boiled sausages, as in all methods of making sausages, 
one of the main processes is the collection of raw materials. If frozen meat is used, 
it is defrosted and cleaned. It is possible to produce high-quality sausages from 
meat that has not fallen off the stove. The meat is sliced, separated from bones and 
tendons, and sorted by quality. The meat is cut into 2-3 cm pieces in a special 
device, and salt and nitrates are added. The meat is kept for 24-48 hours at a 
temperature of 3-4 0 С for good salting. The salted meat is ground again, then oil 
and spices are added to make sausage mince. With the help of special syringe 
machines, sausage mince is placed in shells. Raw sausages are cooked first at a 
temperature of 90-110 0 С and then in hot steam chambers at a temperature of 75-
85 0 С. Cooked sausages are washed in cold showers with water temperature not 
exceeding 150 С. Boiled flasks with different names differ slightly in their recipe. 
For example, the recipe for "Doktorskaya" sausage contains 25% high-quality 
beef, 70% low-fat pork, 3% egg melange, 2% dry milk and nutmeg. Boiled 
sausages made only from beef contain raw materials such as 40% high grade, 35% 
first grade beef, 20% beef brain and 5% chicken egg, pepper, nutmeg. 2% will be 
milk powder and nutmeg. Boiled sausages made only from beef contain raw 
materials such as 40% high grade, 35% first grade beef, 20% beef brain and 5% 
chicken egg, pepper, nutmeg. 2% will be milk powder and nutmeg. Boiled 
sausages made only from beef contain raw materials such as 40% high grade, 35% 
first grade beef, 20% beef brain and 5% chicken egg, pepper, nutmeg. 
The main difference between semi-smoked sausages and boiled sausages is 
that cooked and cooled sausages are smoked at a temperature of 35-50 0 С for 12-
24 hours. Then the sausages are dried in separate chambers for 2-4 days at a 
temperature of 12 0 С, with a relative humidity of 70-75%. These sausages have a 
dense structure, the energy value is much higher due to the fact that the water 
content in them is less than that of boiled sausages. 
Depending on the method of preparation, smoked sausages are divided into 
raw smoked and boiled smoked sausages. Raw smoked sausages contain less water 
(25-30%) compared to boiled and semi-smoked sausages, have a dense structure 
and therefore have a long shelf life. They are nutritious and have a high energy 
value due to the fact that they contain a lot of fat (25-60%), protein substances (21-
22%). 
For the production of raw smoked sausages, high and first grade beef, fatty 
and lean pork, as well as breast fat are used. The peculiarity of the production of 
these sausages is that the prepared meat is kept at a temperature of 0-20 С for 3-7 
days, and then minced meat is made from it. The mince is placed in shells, to give 

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a very dense structure, hung on hooks and left to rest for a week at a temperature of 
2-40 С. After that, it is smoked using the cold smoking method for 2-3 days at a 
temperature of 18-220 С. After smoking, the sausages are dried for 20-25 days at a 
temperature of 120 С and a relative humidity of 65-75% until the moisture content 
remains at 30%. 
The composition of boiled-smoked sausages is almost no different from raw 
smoked sausages. The peculiarity of making these sausages is that the sausages are 
first smoked with heat at a temperature of 600 С, then cooled and boiled. Cooked 
sausage is smoked for the second time at a temperature of 400 С for 1 day. After 
smoking, it is dried for 7-12 days. Boiled and smoked sausages contain more water 
(up to 43%), so their shelf life is also shorter. 
The quality of sausage products is evaluated based on organoleptic and 
physicochemical parameters. These include the condition, appearance, structure, 
color, smell and taste of the bars.