Global Education Monitoring Report 2021/2: Non-state actors in education: Who chooses? Who loses?

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Short summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v 
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Contents
Non-state actors in education
1
KEY MESSAGES .................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 
CHAPTER 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Education is both a public and a private good .............................................................................................................................................................. 9
The right to education involves entitlements and freedoms ................................................................................................................................ 9
Support for public education is strong ...........................................................................................................................................................................10
Diverse arguments drive debate for or against non-state provision ..............................................................................................................11
Myths about state and non-state actors in education prevail...........................................................................................................................16
Guide to the report ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................22
CHAPTER 2. Provision ...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Enrolment in non-state schools has been growing ..................................................................................................................................................32
State and non-state schools differ in student intake and available resources ......................................................................................... 40
The impact of non-state schools on individual and system outcomes is contested ..............................................................................47
Non-state actors offer education goods and services other than schooling ............................................................................................ 54
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................62
CHAPTER 3. Governance and regulation..................................................................................................................................... 63
Education system governance is often fragmented ...............................................................................................................................................67
Regulations do not focus enough on equity and quality ......................................................................................................................................75
Weak implementation often undermines regulation ............................................................................................................................................. 86
Private tutoring regulations tend to be underdeveloped .................................................................................................................................... 90
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................91
CHAPTER 4. Finance ......................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Governments finance non-state providers directly and indirectly ................................................................................................................. 96
Households face significant burdens and tough choices ...................................................................................................................................100
Donors are cautious about supporting for-profit education providers ......................................................................................................108
The role of philanthropic and corporate activities in education is evolving .............................................................................................111
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................114
CHAPTER 5. Influence ....................................................................................................................................................................115
Networks advocate for competing visions of non-state actors in education .........................................................................................118
The business sector exerts strong influence on education ..............................................................................................................................125
International organizations and foundations have particular influence ....................................................................................................127
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................132
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CHAPTER 6. Early childhood care and education ................................................................................................................... 133
Non-state actors lead care and education services for children under 3 ................................................................................................... 137
Non-state actors are more prominent in pre-primary than in basic education ..................................................................................... 139
Non-state provision challenges governance and regulation ............................................................................................................................ 144
Public funding of non-state provision takes different forms ........................................................................................................................... 150
Non-state actors innovate and advocate for ECCE ............................................................................................................................................... 153
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 7. Tertiary education................................................................................................................................................... 157
More than one in three tertiary students attend non-state institutions ................................................................................................. 160
Non-state tertiary education regulation varies .......................................................................................................................................................170
Financing modalities have quality and equity implications ...............................................................................................................................174
Non-state actors influence tertiary education through multiple mechanisms ......................................................................................178
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 180
CHAPTER 8. Technical, vocational and adult education ........................................................................................................ 181
Apart from entry-level skills, non-state actors dominate technical and vocational education ..................................................... 184
Governing skills development systems with non-state actor participation is challenging .............................................................. 189
The right mix of state and non-state financing can support optimal skills development ................................................................ 192
Non-state actors are a driving force in adult learning and education ......................................................................................................... 195
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 200
Monitoring education in the Sustainable Development Goals
201
CHAPTER 9. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 203
Countries have submitted national SDG 4 benchmarks ..................................................................................................................................... 206
COVID-19 has affected the prospects of achieving SDG 4 and the means of monitoring progress ............................................ 208
The SDG 4 monitoring framework continues to develop ................................................................................................................................... 211
Guide to the monitoring part............................................................................................................................................................................................ 212
CHAPTER 10. Primary and secondary education ................................................................................................................... 213
Access ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 215
Focus 10.1: How do demand factors prevent universal schooling? .............................................................................................................. 219
Learning ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 221
Focus 10.2: Learning does not progress in a linear fashion ................................................................................................................................231
COVID-19 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................233
CHAPTER 11. Early childhood ..................................................................................................................................................... 241
Focus 11.1: Early childhood care and education starts at birth ..................................................................................................................... 248
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 250
CHAPTER 12. Technical, vocational, tertiary and adult education ..................................................................................... 253
Technical and vocational education and training ................................................................................................................................................... 255
Tertiary education .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 258
Focus 12.1: Many families have trouble repaying student debt..................................................................................................................... 260
Adult education .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................262
Focus 12.2: Community learning centres have proliferated in many countries ......................................................................................265
Focus 12.3: Education leave is a tool to promote adult education in high-income countries ......................................................... 267
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 269
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CHAPTER 13. Skills for work ........................................................................................................................................................ 273
Focus 13.1: Computational thinking is an important component of digital literacy ............................................................................278
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 280
CHAPTER 14. Equity ...................................................................................................................................................................... 281
Focus 14.1: Household wealth does not capture all dimensions of poverty ............................................................................................ 289
Focus 14.2: Many children attend rebel-controlled schools – sometimes their entire school life ................................................ 290
Focus 14.3: More information is becoming available on the number of children taught in their home language ................ 294
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 298
CHAPTER 15. Literacy and numeracy ....................................................................................................................................... 301
Focus 15.1: Basic numeracy skills have stagnated among Africa’s poorest for decades ................................................................... 308
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 310
CHAPTER 16. Sustainable development and global citizenship ......................................................................................... 313
Focus 16.1: Climate change education aims to equip populations to cope with and mitigate
the effects of climate change ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 320
COVID-19 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................324
CHAPTER 17. Education facilities and learning environments ........................................................................................... 325
Focus 17.1: School schedules are part of the learning environment – and influence outcomes .....................................................333
Focus 17.2: School infrastructure may be above the minimum standard yet unacceptable and deteriorating .....................335
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 338
CHAPTER 18. Scholarships ........................................................................................................................................................... 339
Focus 18.1: Scholarship aid flows are becoming less concentrated ............................................................................................................. 344
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 348
CHAPTER 19. Teachers .................................................................................................................................................................. 351
Focus 19.1: Many teachers are trained and qualified but not for the subject they teach .................................................................359
COVID-19 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 362
CHAPTER 20. Education in the other SDGs ............................................................................................................................. 365
Improved energy and infrastructure support education ................................................................................................................................... 368
Education can support achievement of energy and sustainability objectives ...................................................................................... 369
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................372
CHAPTER 21. Monitoring finance .............................................................................................................................................. 373
Public expenditure ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................376
Focus 21.1: Poor countries need to increase tax revenue to fund education ...........................................................................................379
Focus 21.2: Education spending should focus on equity .................................................................................................................................... 383
Aid expenditure ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 386
Household expenditure ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 398
Annex
Statistical tables ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 401
Aid tables ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 469
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................479
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 482
References .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 486
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Document Outline

• CONTENTS