Harald Heinrichs · Pim Martens Gerd Michelsen · Arnim Wiek Editors

Table 23.1
“Green ideas” that hotels can implement
Idea
Already adopted by
Recycling stained tablecloths into napkins, chef’s aprons, and 
neckties
Hotel in Toronto
Bought a mulcher to chop up garden clippings and create 
mulch
Hotel in Florida (mulcher paid 
for itself in 3 months)
Produces organically grown vegetables for its restaurant
Hotel in Pennsylvania
Solar energy is lighting signage and heating water
Hotels in tropical areas
Installed beautiful blue floor tile made from recycled
automobile windshields
Wisconsin B&B
Bicycles are being loaned or rented to guests
Hotels across the globe
Source: Green Hotels Association. Available at: 
http://greenhotels.com/grnideas.php
 (accessed 
07/14/13)
23 Tourism and Sustainability

---

286
of tourism activities is carried out at the global level. Measuring sustainability indi-
cators of tourism in systematic and reliable ways would not only help in monitoring 
the extent of sustainability challenges associated with tourism, but also account for 
the outcomes and performance of sustainable tourism efforts, be they voluntary or 
enforced.
The case of the Canary Islands in Spain is discussed here to explain the role of
indicators in decision-making and management toward sustainability. The Canary 
Islands is one of the most popular and successful tourist destinations in Europe, but
this success has provoked land use conflicts and problems related to the carrying
capacity of infrastructure and public services (UNWTO 
2004
). These problems 
prompted the regional government to set up a working group to develop indicators 
applicable to tourism in general (see Sect. 
1
, above) and sustainable tourism in par-
ticular, based on UNWTO (
1997
). Proposed sets of indicators include, among oth-
ers (UNWTO 
2004
):
– Tourist numbers (site pressure)
– Density of use and beds per km
2
(use intensity)
– Ratio of tourists to locals (social impact)
– Area covered by development plans (planning process)
– Percentage of tourists who agree they would like to return or recommend the
destination to others (tourist’s satisfaction)
– Percentage of population wanting more, same, or less tourists (resident’s
satisfaction)
– Value of tourist expenditures (contribution of tourism)
As a result of this assessment, the regional government initiated a tourism plan-
ning process to increase the management capacities of authorities and the industry. 
In this process, tourism growth began to be defined as wealth generated by tourism
rather than just growth in the number of tourists. Furthermore, tourism growth was 
linked to the reconversion of existing infrastructures and the diversification and dif-
ferentiation of the tourism offer, rather than to the mere construction of new accom-
modations (UNWTO 
2004
).
Tourism sustainability seeks transformational change by addressing the root 
causes of unsustainability. It involves the redefinition of tourism into a social activ-
ity that supports a global transition toward sustainability. Such redefinition requires, 
first of all, the setting of a new policy paradigm veered away from traditional policy 
instruments and indicators
that are subordinated to a pro-growth model of gover-
nance. Instead, a polycentric and network-based model of governance for sustain-
ability needs to be established. An example of an initial attempt to implement this 
type of governance is the “Natural Step” program, an international organization that 
uses a science-based, systems framework to help organizations and communities 
understand and move toward sustainability. The challenge is to institutionalize pro-
grams like Natural Step in order to foster the development of new destinations and 
the transformation of existing ones. A good example in this direction is the pioneer-
ing adoption since 2002 of the “Natural Step” framework by the Resort Municipality 
of Whistler in Canada (Gill et al. 
2008
). According to Gill and Williams (
2011
: 
D. Manuel-Navarrete

---

287
639): “The Whistler 2020 vision and principles emphasize that the traditional ‘pil-
lars of sustainability’ are not distinct ‘silos’ for individual consideration but are 
interconnected components of the destination system. Framed in this manner, any 
action undertaken for a specific purpose […] must consider wider upstream and 
downstream implications.”
Polycentric and network-based tourism governance systems may contribute to
de-Westernizing tourism. That is, to stop assuming that Western culture is universal 
and modern, while non-Western cultural forms are provincial and backward. In
turn, de-Westernized forms of tourism would contribute to de-Westernizing the 
world. The contemporary model of tourism governance is guided by values and 
philosophies cemented in a long history of colonization and expansion, which 
emphasizes individualism, hedonism, conquest, and exploitation (Higgins- 
Desbiolles 
2010
). Tourism sustainability scholars can increase the visibility of 
decolonizing alternatives both within Western culture and elsewhere. For instance, 
some forms of Islamic tourism are arguably geared toward spiritual growth and
instilling solidarity within the community (Inayatullah
1995
). Other examples 
include the values behind Polynesian hospitality, including generosity, reciprocity,
and Aroa (a value full of complex meanings but possible to distill to love, kindness, 
and generosity), which can be seen as an alternative value system supporting alter-
native forms of engagement with tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles 
2006
). Within the 
USA, the Diné traditional living system Sa’ah Naaghai Bik’eh Hozhoo is grounded 
in Navajo cultural traditions and could contribute to place tourism development in 
harmony with the natural world and the universe. Unfortunately, there is little 
empirical evidence of successful experiences in this direction.
Tourism governance for sustainability requires a close academic scrutiny of the 
associations between (1) current power structures controlling tourism development, 
(2) the contribution of existing tourism policies toward the promotion of uneven and 
unequal development, and (3) the alliances of the tourism industry with governments 
and international institutions. Social sciences have developed a number of theories 
and analytical tools in recent decades, including actor-network, assemblages, non-
representational, biopolitical, and entanglement of power approaches, oriented 
toward unraveling and understanding spatiotemporal patterns of power relations 
(Manuel-Navarrete 
2012
). Most of these theories have their origins in principles and 
frameworks put forth by or derived from the work of Karl Marx or Sigmund Freud. 
Yet, many of them, especially some of those often referred to as poststructuralist, 
have received strong influences from nonequilibrium thermodynamics and complex-
ity theory (Manuel-Navarrete 
2013
). This link with complexity may facilitate a fluid
dialogue between social science and sustainability scholars and practitioners that 
leads to combining a deeper knowledge of social power relations with structured 
visioning, constructive governance, and the promotion of a global transition.
At the very least, tourism development needs to be politicized. This is crucial in 
order to avoid sustainability being further hijacked by the prevailing model of devel-
opment and continuing to fall into the service of the controllers of capital, the boards 
of directors of major transnational companies, and other organizations which 
manage the industry (Mowforth and Munt 
1998
). Research on social power and 
23 Tourism and Sustainability

---

288
sustainability can work together to develop effective means of translating the criti-
cal politicization of tourism into actions and feasible policy options with impacts on 
the ground.
• Task: Solutions to the problems of unsustainable tourism are under development. 
How can sustainable development and planning of touristic destinations be 
achieved? Provide some examples that illustrate the principles of sustainable tour-
ism and tourism sustainability discussed above. How can polycentric and network-
based models of governance be promoted in the context of tourism sustainability?